Hobbes’ And Lockes Political Philosophy Essay Example for Free

Hobbes And Lockes Political Philosophy EssayOn Hobbes Political PhilosophyHobbes scientistic philosophy presupposed that while is the self-sufficient interpreter of the facts of life and that service domain can correctly define what the facts of life atomic number 18. akin(predicate) to the Sophists, Hobbes asserted that the fareable facts of life are solely particular empirical things. Thus, Hobbes asserted that universal words, much(prenominal) as good and evil, are incomprehensible to man in the objective sense as rooted in reality. Because they are non-empirical and universal, they are uncorrupted names. care the Sophists, Hobbes was also a nominalist. Moreover, Hobbes asserted that metaphysical essences and metaphysical familys do not exist. graven images attri howeveres are classicly names that man thinks would honor Him. Thus, same(p) the Sophists, there is no internal hierarchy tied to the essences or purposes of things, just now only a realm of innate ca uses.For Hobbes, man existed individually in a realm of nature before courtly govern handst was formed. He asserted that human equality is based upon an empirical condition, namely big businessman. Man in the put forward of nature was obligated only to seek Peace by self-preservation. Hobbes embraced a negative theory of freedom. There was really no law in the evince of nature because the obligation to seek peace was not declared from a higher queen no one had a Bible in the state of nature to proclaim to him the will of almighty God. As one who believed in Gods existence, Hobbes scientistic epistemology and ontology forced him to embrace theological voluntarism.Ultimately, morals are grounded in the arbitrary will of God rather than His character. Hobbes postulated that the superior will and power are the only legitimate grounds of law.1 In terms of what is good and evil, ripe and un scantily, the natural man in a state of nature did whatever he concludeably thought was co unterbalance in his own eyes to restrain his life.If killing another person was deemed necessary to preserve his life, consequently it was good and just in the sense that it preserved the peace. Thus, because good and evil, just and unjust are mere names whose meanings no one can agree on, the state of nature is a state of war, every man against every man. And because man of course avoids the risk of harm, he arms himself to preserve the peace.2For Hobbes, only accomplished society has a supreme sovereign to give the citizens the standard they so desperately motif to judge between good and evil, virtue and vice. For Hobbes, good and evil are not objective ideas rooted in reality that man can cerebrate and understand with his own mind. Therein is the fountain from which springs forth the conflict of individual man in a state of nature.Man, as a risk avoider, contracts with his broncobuster man to leave the state of nature and create an artificial civilian society in which a third party will act as the supreme power. Hobbes pointed, the will of the parties in their social contract create their duties to each other and to the third party. The third party, the king, must define for the society what is good and evil, just and unjust so that the natural war of all against all will cease. The king, however, is not a party to the contract. The king has no contractual duty to the citizens, but only a natural duty to God to seek peace. The king seeks peace by deterring evildoers (the king defines who is evil) by wielding the sword and restricting free speech.Thus, whatsoever punish ment meted out by the government is for the purpose of deterring wrongdoing, not retribution. That is, the evildoer is neither punished because he necessarily deserves it nor punished proportionally to his just desert, but because the punishment is an example to others how seriously the king takes his duty to preserve the peace. Thus, logically, the king could reformly punish an in nocent citizen. The only inalienable right the citizens have is the natural right to preserve their life. Thus, they contracted to obey the king they did not contract not to resist the king when being punished.In the state of nature, no man is obligated to heed another persons sagaciousness or power. Every person has a right to all things, to define what is good and what is evil, charge to kill a person if one does not trust him. For Hobbes, the primary means of achieving peace is by creating an artificial society through individual covenantal relationships (Ibid, 66).In De Cive, Hobbes defined a contract as the act of twain, or more, mutually conveying their rights and a covenant as that which involves promises that bind one to perform in the future (Ibid, 35-36). Hobbes political theory involves more of a social covenant idea than a social contract. But he does tend to use the two terms interchangeably, as is evidenced below, perhaps signifying both that rights are given up and that one is bound to perform in the future with the creation of civil society out of the state of nature.3Most assuredly, Hobbes political philosophy is a recipe for a tyrannical and oppressive government Similar to the Sophists, Hobbes scientistic philosophy supports the program line that every philosophy that has scientific presuppositions and begins with physical particulars produces a negative view of freedom, a simple view of human equality based upon power, allowance that is equated with mere power and sanction, a deterrence theory of punishment, a natural law that can only be known in selfish generalities, natural rights that are grounded in mans self-interests, nominalism, and theological voluntarism.In addition, because the social contract or covenant is made with each other and not with the sovereign, the sovereign has no obligation to the people that arises from the social contract. The only obligation the absolute sovereign king has is to God. In Leviathan, Hobbes dis cusses why a king with such absolute power will not take all, spoil all, kill all. Hobbes states Though by right, that is, without injury to them, he may do it, yet can he not do it justly, that is, without breach of the natural laws, and injury against God. And therefore there is some security for subjects in the oaths which princes take.4Hobbes seems to say that the king would not be want peace, the one obligation of the natural law, if he sought to take all, spoil all, and kill all. But if the king does abuse his power, the citizens have an inalienable right to resist death. For Hobbes, the citizens contracted or covenanted by their natural right to all things, but one the preservation of life.According to Hobbes, that is the one inalienable right that men have. In essence, men contract or covenant with each other that the king may kill them if they do not perform their contractual duty, not that they will not resist when then king attempts to kill them. Although the king can s in against God, in no situation is the right taken away from him, of slaying those who shall refuse to obey him.5 Moreover, the king has the right to judge what opinions and doctrines are enemies unto peace, and also that he forbid them to be taught.6 Hence, it is the sole purpose of having a civil government.On Lockes Political PhilosophyThe state of nature refers to the natural pre-political state of man. Except for the fact that Locke believed man naturally is a social person in a family, he agreed with Hobbes that man is not naturally a social being. Similar to Hobbes, civil society is not natural, but artificial. In a state of nature, man was free within the bounds of the natural law and was equal in power in relation to everyone else to act as judge in his own case and controversy with anyone else.The natural law obligates man to preserve himself to do no harm, and to preserve the community in the absence of competition.7 Similar to Hobbes, Locke equated human equality with power. Although Locke believed in a positive view of freedom whereby man is free only within law, Locke failed to show that man could know the specifics of the natural law code and thus, he failed to show that man really possessed a positive freedom in the state of nature. Do no harm does not provide much moral guidance. In reality, like Hobbes, for Locke man possessed a negative freedom.Locke stated state all men are naturally in is a state of perfect freedom to order their actions, and dispose of their possessions, and persons as they think fit, within the bounds of the law of nature, without asking leave, or depending upon the will of any other man. A state also of equality, wherein all the power and jurisdiction is reciprocal, no one having more than another.8Similar to the Sophists and Hobbes, Locke believed man began his existence in a state of nature. For Locke, the state of nature is divided into two historical stages. In the first stage, man had a natural place right over his own body. Everything else was naturally held in common. When a man labored over something that was held in common, he acquired property in it. Moreover, man had a natural right of subsistence, which was regulated by spoilage. In other words, what man possessed as property by mixing his labor with it was contain by what he could consume before spoiling. The second stage of the state of nature was initiated in by the invention and use of money.With the invention of money, man could cast up his possessions way beyond what he could consume before spoiling. Money does not spoil. Although the use of money produced the unequal division of the earth, overall, Locke argues everyone is better off For Locke, mankind socially compacted to form civil society for several reasons first, some in the state of nature were ignorant of the law of nature, second some were biased by the sum total of property they had, third, there was no impartial judge to resolve disputes, and fourth, there was no third power to execute the law of nature. Underlying all of these reasons to form civil society is, similar to the Sophists and Hobbes, mans self-interested passion to preserve himself.Because not one theoretical or practical principle is written on mans heart, the natural law is not written on mans heart. Because the natural law can be known only from a lawmaker, those who are ignorant of Gods existence because they fail to apply their reason are ignorant of the natural law. For those who do apply their reason and come to know of Gods existence and the natural law, Locke claimed that they could know the natural law code as they could know the specifics of mathematics.But Locke never came be quiet to showing that the specific moral code is capable of mathematical demonstration. Locke extremely overestimated how much moral knowledge his empiricist epistemology could deliver. Lockes empiricist epistemology could not demonstrate in expand what was good or evil, just or unjust For Locke, mans conscience is nothing other than his own opinion of what is right and wrong. Thus, similar to the Sophists and Hobbes, Locke was basically a skeptic.Gods natural law governs his creatures. Although Locke wrote of Gods right and authority to rule over his creatures, Locke never justifies his assertion. Locke never demonstrated that God was anything except the most powerful being that could compel obedience through rewards and punishments. Lockes empiricist epistemology does not allow him to draw the distinction between authority and mere power. Thus, like Hobbes, punishment for Locke was merely deterrence.Moreover, because Locke was so consumed with, and analyzed so thoroughly, the empiricist epistemology of natural law, Locke demonstrates clearer than Hobbes that scientism coupled with a belief in God leads to nothing but theological voluntarism, i.e., the law is ultimately grounded in Gods almighty will, not His unchanging character, such that God can will anything to be moral. Thus, whoever embraces an empiricist epistemology and at the same time, acknowledges God as the ultimate lawgiver, will be left with nothing but theological voluntarism. Thus, scientistic modernism destroyed the firm and unchanging foundation of civil law and the only real restraint to civil tyranny, namely, a natural law grounded in Gods eternal and unchanging character.Similar to Hobbes, the starting time of civil governmental power for Locke is the consent of the people. There are two natural powers that are given to civil society, the legislative and executive. The legislative power in any civil government is superior over the executive because it gives the laws to the executive. Some of mans natural executive power is retained. This is so because mans natural right of self-preservation is inalienable, i.e., it cannot be given over to civil government.Thus, men in civil society have a right to resist the civil government if, later a long train of abuses, their opinio n on the basis of their feelings grounded in their experience is that the civil government has violated the natural law. The civil governmental authority puts itself into a state of war with the people when it repeatedly violates the natural law. Tyranny occurs when the civil government acts out of its own self-interest and does not protect the property of the people. Lockes theory of civil resistor is weak, however, because he failed to demonstrate that the specific code of the natural law is knowable.9Similar to Hobbes, Lockes empiricist epistemology made the end of civil government empirical, i.e., the self-preservation of the people. Lockes theory of civil resistance is based upon the personal opinions of the people. Thus, Locke could support that notion that the civil government should tolerate every apparitional opinion that does not threaten the peoples physical property.10Moreover, Locke placed most religious beliefs in the realm of mere opinions. For Locke, only a few rel igious propositions were within the realm of demonstrative knowledge. Overall, Lockes theory of religious toleration is a two-edged sword. In a sense, it encouraged theological relativism. In another sense, it allowed religious liberty, albeit seemingly equating toleration with liberty (negative freedom).Finally, if Hobbes political philosophy described how a society of skeptics could live together under one sovereign power, then Lockes political philosophy described how a society of skeptics could live together by balancing their opinions with the civil governments. Thus, contrary to Hobbes, Locke believed that a little civil resistance now and then is a good thing.Although Lockes political philosophy guards against tyranny better than the political philosophy of the Sophists and Hobbes, similar to the Sophists and Hobbes, Lockes scientistic philosophy supports the argument that any philosophy that has scientific presuppositions and begins with physical particulars produces a negat ive view of freedom, a simple view of human equality based upon power, authority that is equated with mere power and sanction, a deterrence theory of punishment, a natural law that can only be known in selfish generalities, natural rights that are grounded in mans self-interests, nominalism, and theological voluntarism.BIBILIOGRAPHYHobbes, Thomas. Leviathan Or the Matter, Forme and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil, ed. Michael Oakeshott. New York Simon . Schuster, Inc., 1997.Locke, John. Two Treatises of administration, ed. Peter Laslett. Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 1988.1 Hobbes, Thomas, Leviathan Or the Matter, Forme and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil (New York Simon . Schuster, Inc., 1997), 54-63)2 Ibid, 72-77.3 Ibid, 11-21.4 Ibid, 77.5 Ibid, 79.6 Ibid, 76.7 Locke, John, Two Treatises of Government (Cambridge Cambridge University Press, 1988) 283-290.8 Ibid, 263.9 Ibid, 290-292.10 Ibid.

The collapse of Enron Essay Example for Free

The collapse of Enron EssayThe collapse of Enron seems to be rooted in a combination of the failure of top leadership, a somatic refinement that supported unethical behavior, and the complicity of the investment banking community. In the aftermath of Enrons bankruptcy filing, numerous Enron executives were supercharged with criminal acts, including fraud, money laundering, and insider trading. Ben Glisan, Enrons former treasurer, was charged with two-dozen counts of money laundering, fraud, and conspiracy.During the plea negotiations, Glisan described Enron as a house of cards. Andrew Fastow, Jeff Skilling, and Ken Lay are among the most notable top-level executives implicated in the collapse of Enrons house of cards. Andrew Fastow, former Enron chief financial officer (CFO), faced 98 counts of money laundering, fraud, and conspiracy in connection with the improper partnerships he ran, which included a Brazilian power plant project and a Nigerian power plant project that w as aided by Merrill Lynch, an investment banking firm. 2.How did the top leadership at Enron undermine the foundation values of the Enron Code of Ethics? Enrons ethics code was based on respect, integrity, communication, and excellence. Kenneth Lay, former chairman and (CEO) of Enron Corp. , once quoted as saying I was fully exposed to not only legal behavior but moral and ethical behavior and what that means from the standpoint of leading organizations and tidy sum. In an introductory statement to the revised Enron Code of Ethics issued in July 2000, Lay wrote As officers and employees of Enron Corp.Its subsidiaries, and its affiliated companies, we are responsible for conducting the assembly line affairs of the companies in conformity with all applicable laws and in a moral and honest manner. Lay went on to indicate that the 64-page Enron Code of Ethics reflected policies approved by the companys board of directors and that the company, which enjoyed a reputation for being f air and honest, was highly respected.Enrons ethics code also specified that An employee shall not conduct himself or herself in a manner which directly or indirectly would be detrimental to the best interests of the Company or in a manner which wouldbring to the employee financial gain separately derived as a direct consequence of his or her employment with the Company. 3. How did Enrons corporate culture promote unethical decisions and actions? Enron has been described as having a culture of arrogance that led people to believe that they could handle increasingly greater risk without encountering any danger. According to Sherron Watkins, Enrons unspoken gist was, Make the numbers, make the numbers, make the numbersif you steal, if you cheat, just dont get caught.If you do, beg for a second chance, and youll get one. Enrons corporate culture did little to promote the values of respect and integrity. These values were undermined through the companys emphasis on decentralization, i ts employee performance appraisals, and its compensation program. Each Enron division and business unit was kept separate from the others, and as a result very few people in the organization had a big picture thought of the companys operations.Accompanying this emphasis on decentralization were insufficient operational and financial controls as well as a distracted, hands-off chairman, a compliant board of directors, and an impotent staff of accountants, auditors, and lawyers. Jeff Skilling implemented a very rigorous and threatening performance evaluation process for all Enron employees. Known as rank and yank, the annual process utilized peer evaluations, and each of the companys divisions was arbitrarily forced to fire the lowest ranking one-fifth of its employees. Employees often ranked their peers lower in order to enhance their own positions in the company.Enrons compensation plan seemed oriented toward enriching executives rather than generating profits for shareholders an d encouraged people to break rules and inflate the value of contracts even though no actual cash was generated. Enrons bonus program encouraged the use of non-standard accounting practices and the blow up valuation of deals on the companys books. Indeed, deal inflation became widespread within the company as partnerships were created solely to hide losses and avoid the consequences of owning up to problems. (p29-31) Weiss, Joseph W. (2009). Business Ethics A Stakeholders Issues Management Approach

Risk And Uncertainty When Entering A New Market Economics Essay

find And Uncertainty When Entering A New Market Economics EssayWhen entering a foreign commercialise for the commencement time, a firm testament be faced with many unknows. Distinguish in the midst of the concepts of lay on the line and suspicion when a firm is entering a market of your choice. Give examples of types of seek.INTRODUCTIONThis writing will examine the concept of foreign market incursion by domestic fear entities. It will go bad the riskinesss associated with and probe uncertainties inherent in orbicularizing the topical anesthetic business. The market of choice used in this paper is the entertainment industriousness in general and the music perseverance in particular, with a special focus on the music fabrication in sub-Saharan Africa.The paper will begin by defining get a line price used and then(prenominal) give a broad background of foreign business and sphericalisation. The paper will then narrow its focus to the business context within which it will define risks and uncertainties. Each type of risk is expounded upon within the context provided and a conclusion made.DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS denotation chance ( likewise c everyed default risk) the risk of non-payment or uncertainty associated with payment of financial obligations when they are out-of-pocket.Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) Any investment abroad in which the company being invested in is controlled by a foreign entity or corporation.Foreign Exchange take a chance The risk of loss or money depreciation through change in currency rally rates among the host country and country of origin of foreign investment.Interest Rate Risk Uncertainty associated with changes in interest rates.Location Risk These are spillover or contamination effects created by challenges or problems specific to the region in which a country is in.Piracy The act of misuse of other good deals intellectual property.Pirate Someone who uses anothers intellectual property as if it were hi s own.Political Risk Actions by groups of people or governments which prepare the potence to affect the immediate or long term viability of a firm.Price Risk Uncertainty associated with potential changes in the legal injury of an asset cause by changes in interest rate levels and rates of return in the economy.Pure Risk The type of risk which only presss the potential for loss but never results in gains.Risk The likelihood of an occurrence of an outcome which is disadvantageous or harmful.Sovereign Risk This is the risk that the government or one of its agencies will refuse to honour agreed terms of a loan agreement whenever the situation makes it arduous or undesirable for it to pay.Speculative Risk The type of risk which offers both the potential for gain and the potential for loss.Systematic Risk Risk which make up ones minds a large number of assets and which are impossible to frustrate such as political events or acts of nature. Also called market risk.Talent Someone with an exceptional ability.Uncertainty The quality of human knowledge or schooling concerning risk.Unsystematic Risk (Specific Risk) Risk which affects a very small number of assets or which is specific to a company such as a lockout at a recording studio.Visibility The level of exposure to public scrutiny offered by such factors as a good marketing strategy.INTERNATIONAL military control AND GLOBALISATIONThe term international business is concerned with the exchange of goods and operate between individuals, groups and organizations in two or more(prenominal) countries. It includes all cross-border legal proceeding between nations with commercial or political value, both by government and by private entities. Although globalization is a complex construct to measure, it is widely acknowledged that a lot of the worlds business is either crossing borders and becoming global, uses imports in its manufacturing and/or supply or competing with foreign fruits in the same industry. global ization is a force that entirely cannot be ignored.For purposes of clarity and collect to battles in academic opinion on the subject, a working definition of globalisation for this paper will be derived from Hamilton and Webster (2009)Globalisation involves the creation of linkages or interconnections between nations. It is usually understood as a process in which barriers (physical, political, economic, cultural) separating diverse regions of the world as sic reduced or removed, thereby stimulating exchanges in goods, services, money, and people (Hamilton Webster 2009, p.5).The concept of globalisation acknowledges a world evolution into a global village where activities in one part influence and generate marked significance over those in other parts in a short space of time (Katsioloudes Hadjidakis, 2007 p.366). Rapid technological development has undoubtedly improved connections between countries by expanding telecommunications, transportation services, government operati ons and general enterprise. There are, however, both strengths and weaknesses to be derived from the inexorable advancement of globalisation. Supporters of the concept designate that globalisation has brought about amazing dividends including a sharp fall in poverty improved global health evidenced by an increased global life expectancy and a drop in infant mortality a rise in global literacy and an incomparable wave of democratization (slund A Dabrowski M, 2008 p.3).THE CONTEXT THE MUSIC INDUSTRYThe music industry is a blend of producers, promoters, talent, the melodious art knead, the product lineat and modes of distribution. Unlike in Western nations where epic production studios such as SONY BMG, Motown Record Company, and Arista run the industry through music production, record sales, publishing and related merchandise, in many sub-Saharan African countries, the producers are entrepreneurs who more often than not exploit young and inexperienced talent to turn a profit. Returns to the local industry eat up been handicapped by piracy and the inability or unwillingness of governmental structures to protect intellectual property in itself a reaction to the growing rates of youth and alum unemployment. The music industry in the region has therefore experience limited growth until recent years.Today, advancement in music production technology, the internet, and the influence of international enterprises such as telecommunications giants like AIRTEL and MTN are reshaping the musical comedy farming through intense exposure and multi-faceted advertising campaigns promising to deliver new and exotic musical forms to a global market characterised by quick and ready consumption for innovative and new products. Through this economic globalisation, a new musical culture is emerging, and relatively unexposed classical and contemporary musical art forms in sub-Saharan Africa are beginning to enjoy global exposure.The advantages which the music industry in A frica has to offer are in the uniqueness of the product offering, the vast array of products or individual artistes with individual music and dance styles, and the novelty of the African experience. The Product keep Cycle (PLC) theory explains that the growth stage of international products is characterised by fast growing demand. From an analysis of the music industry in Africa, one could argue that it is rejuvenated into a growth phase in a new product cycle. There is evidence of demand for the new African musical product from such groups as Africans in the diaspora, African the Statesns, and art lovers from diverse cultural backgrounds. This can be said to be the justification behind the consistent exchange of musical artists between Africa and the West in corporate promotions of international telecommunications giants including Airtel, MTN, Orange and Safaricom in several sub-Saharan African countries.One could similarly argue that since the election victory of Barack Obama, th e first US president of African parentage, African American entertainment moguls wishing to identify with the motherland have been creating opportunities for more interaction between Africa and North America in music and film. Film and music festivals such as the Zanzibar International Film Festival (ZIFF), African movie Academy Awards (AMAA), the MTV African Music Awards (the MAMAs), have been consistently attended by American stars of African descent in an effort to increase the involvement and presence of the American entertainment industry (a global leader in the field). Other Awards in the north such as the Music of Black Origin Awards (MOBOs) and the Pan African Film Festival (PAFF) have been striving to acknowledge and recognise African talent in order to spread awareness of the budding industry.One of the reasons why organizations engage in international business is to minimize risk by securing their product in a market with an expanding economy or to counter the strategies of competitors (Daniels, Radebaugh, Sullivan, 2009, p.60). When establishing operations abroad, however, a company also exposes itself to certain types of risk. In making an incursion into a foreign market, music businesses are often faced with several unknowns which are mettlesomelighted under types of risk.RISK AND doubtfulnessBoth risk and uncertainty are factors which inherently influence corporate, strategic and tactical purpose making in firms. Risks are calculable or known premises of the probability of having an undesirable outcome. They are a combination of the probability of occurrence of hazards and the magnitude or impact of their likely consequences. People who make decisions evermore have a certain level of knowledge about risks they take. The music producer, for instance, understands the risk of piracy in his immediate environment and the impact it whitethorn have on his ability to turn a profit from the music business, or he may understand the risk taken on inve sting in and promoting hitherto unproven talents in the industry based on mere intuition.The tolerability of risk is the willingness of a subject to live with a certain level of risk in exchange for some certain benefits. While the risk of competing with pirates who have minimal production and set-up costs may be high, the trade-off is often industry visibility for the product which enables the producer or label to get beneficial contracts for live and sometimes international music events. Further risks faced by the music industry in an effort to globalise are outlined below under risks faced by the industry.Uncertainty, on the other hand, is the situation in which the decision maker has no precise knowledge of the probability of occurrence of contrary states of outcome. The decision maker, in essence, has no predictive knowledge of the probability of any form of outcome. The music producer may be largely uncertain whether his or her product or talent is suitable for a market which has a different cultural context which may include a language barrier. He will also probably be uncertain about whether there will be a terrorist attack (a political risk) at any one of the shows organised for the benefit of promoting his talents abroad, even though he may be warned in advance of the risk of a cyclone and other forces of nature.TYPES OF RISKRisks may be typified along several different and distinct lines but due to volume restrictions and for the purposes of this paper we shall be examining the typologies listed belowCountry riskPolitical risk transferral riskEconomic riskForeign exchange riskLocation risk1. Country riskAll businesses which transcend borders become exposed to a certain measure of risk which is not present in their domestic activities and transactions and these are known as country risks. In the narrower view of the concept, country risk is defined as risk that a country will not be able to honour its financial commitments (Katsioloudes Hadjidakis , 2007 p.185-6). In the broader context, however, country risk analyses are general aggregates of sub-risk factors present within the country. They may be calculated and form the basis on which to determine the desirability of choosing a country upon which to invest. For instance, countries which favour external investments and remove restrictive trade barriers are normally considered to be effective ground for foreign direct investment.By and large many third world countries like those of sub-Saharan Africa have not got the best end of the globalisation bargain (Waters, 2001 p.45) Due to usual high levels of uncertainty, country risk is not always easily calculated. However, some practitioners calculate country risk by dividing it up into sub-categories of risk which are then aggregated. These usually include political risk, economic risk transfer risk foreign exchange risk location risk sovereign risk. According to current country risk ratings, Norway as the country with the leas t risk for investment (http//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country_risk).2. Political RiskPolitical risks include all risks associated with the actions of government especially those to do with the legal dimension, relationships between countries, and security of investments. As with every other facet of business, political risks influence the music industry and the feasibleness of globalisation. The African music and entertainment industries desire to move into Asia and North America because of the influence, technology and financial pull of Bollywood in India and Hollywood in the USA. Countries such as Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iraq are not ideal destinations due to political turmoil and the potent risk of loss of life, property or investments there. Other countries with an Eastern or collectivist inclination are not attractive to those with capitalist orientations.In order to avoid fallouts of a political nature in investing in a global music enterprise, those in the African music industry simply need to do some country research to acquire relevant randomness about political stability and diplomatic relations between the country of potential investment and the country of the investors origin. There are a variety of web-based services which offer information on countries via country reports. The probability of travel restrictions barring temporary immigration or work based travel and visa denials due to stringent conditions are also elements of a political nature whose risks need calculation before any major investment can be made.3. Transfer riskSometimes the country of an individual who borrows money in an investment restricts the ability of people in that country to buy foreign exchange. The impact of this is that the borrower may not be able to meet his/her obligations to repay in foreign currency the currency of the borrowed amount. The risk of this occurring is normally known as transfer risk and because of the role of government in this type of risk it is als o a type of political risk. This risk is mostly present in countries where democracy is not the system of government.4. Economic RiskEconomic risk in the context of globalisation is the risk that the investment will be economically unsustainable. Variations in different financial inputs and outputs of the enterprise need to add up to ensure that the risk of fallout is checked. In the music industry, when the investment in an artist in terms of publicity and promotion, training and logistical costs are predicted not to be able to be offset by predicted future sales from the work of the artist, then it can be said that the economic risk is too high and it is not a good or advisable investment.5. Foreign Exchange RiskThis is also known as exchange rate risk or currency risk. It is the risk of change of the value of an investment due to fluctuations between exchange rates of the currency of the investor and the currency of the host country for the investment. The possible adverse effect of foreign exchange risk is that the investment may become more expensive as a result of unprecedented changes in currencies which are outside the control of the investor. A music producer who invests in a product for sale in a foreign market will be happy if the value of the foreign currency appreciates against the value of his local currency as that would mean increased profits for him.The foreign exchange market is highly volatile and predicting the direction of foreign exchange movement a guessing game. many a(prenominal) foreign buyers prefer to avoid this risk by trading in their local currency.6. Location RiskLocation risks are risk factors associated with the political neighbours of a country or region. Certain states in North America which border Mexico are affected by mislabeled immigration and have concerns to do with illegal migrant workers the political dynamics of such countries as Tunisia affects that of similar or neighbouring countries such as Egypt and Libya as evidenced by the recent revolts (in the first fourth of 2011).RISK RETURN TRADE-OFFThe risk-return trade-off principle holds that low risk levels are associated with low potential returns while where high risks exist the possibility of high returns looms large. This is why even when the country risks are great, firms may decide to take on the challenge of investing nevertheless, often prompted by the need to defend against the outlook of the companys competitors taking the initiative. For example, in the music and entertainment industry, many North American artistes used to shun the Middle East as a suitable showground due to the notion that Middle Eastern ideologies and Islamic values predominant in the culture there were inconsistent with the entertainment requirements of unrestricted freedom of expression. However, in an unprecedented turnaround, Middle Eastern cities such as Dubai are fast becoming a favourite of artistes since big artists like Michael Jackson took the plunge o f tapping into the market in the 1990s.OTHER RISKS FACED BY THE INDUSTRYPolycentrism may influence the art form of the music talent. Polycentrism works through the belief of foreign business units of attempt to act local. Artists and producers are often strongly influenced by the local culture of the foreign environment of investment by sub-elements of personality including the language, dressing, use of available musical instruments and technology, and the musical art itself. Socialization of this nature may cause irreparable modification to the art they offer and the image they normally portray, a product exported for its fender nature. This may later influence the potential of the talent to remain intellectually authentic the musical talent in some instances may be incriminate of no longer sounding African or of losing authenticity.SUGGESTED STRATEGY OF INCURSION INTO THE FOREIGN MARKETBased on the factors examined it is advisable for investors in the music industry to seek p artnerships with foreign counterparts in selling the unique products of African traditional and contemporary musical art in a globalised setting. Just as local food is internationalised by countries such as Italy, Japan and the US in entities such as MacDonalds, single entrepreneurs can expand the musical product in clubs which offer African musical content with renewable, trainable talent acting as the products on offer.The risk from competition, while challenging, helps organizations focus their energies on quality strategies of survival or market expansion. Due to the challenges inherent in integrating into a foreign market, foreign firms must enhance the process of their integration into local markets as a matter of necessity. This can be done by recruiting locals and learning the language and culture (Daniels, Radebaugh, Sullivan, 2009, p.505) among other integration strategies.CONCLUSIONThe paper has outlined the concepts of risk and uncertainty in the global arena within the context of the incursion of a local business. The sub-Saharan African perspective has been brought to bear on the analysis. The paper highlighted the difference between risk and uncertainty showing their relationship to one another and giving examples on each of the concepts.The paper has also looked at ways in which a firm in the music and entertainment industry may benefit from globalisation. Comparisons were made between the African music industry and other globalised franchises in the world such as MacDonalds in suggesting a useful model which may be simulated.

Management of Pain in Trigeminal Neuralgia

Management of Pain in Trigeminal neuralgyPercutaneous management of distressingness in Trigeminal Neuralgia under com assembleed tomography focal pointCorersponding AuthorDr. Mitesh KumarMain AuthorDr. Roy SantoshamCo AuthorsDr. Bhawna DevDr. Deepti MoraisDr. Rupesh MandavaDr. R. JeffreyAbstractTrigeminal Neuralgia (TN) is a brief, excruciating and perhaps the most distasteful imposition known to man affecting the hemifacial region. It occurs mainly due to tortuous vessel compressing the trigeminal mettles, though in m any cases, the exact aetiology and pathogenesis remain unde boundined. The first line therapeutic option for patient roles affected by TN is the medical line of management and patients obdurate to the same, are offered various invasive acts desire balloon compression, gamma knife surgery, radiofrequency ablation, etc. In this paper, we present percutaneous management of the disquiet by injecting neurolytic drugs in the abatement ovale under Computed Tomogr aphy (CT) pleader as the new and promising technique of treatment in TN.KeywordsTrigeminal Neuralgia, percutaneous management, CT guidance, neurolytic drugsObjectiveTo evaluate the efficacy and safety of Computed Tomography guide percutaneous management of pain in trigeminal neuralgy using neurolytic drugs.IntroductionTrigeminal Neuralgia is also known as tic douloureux, a term given to this painful disease by Nicolaus Andre in 1756 1 . TN is a pain which typically is intense, brief, usually unilateral, recurrent shock desire involving the branches of fifth cranial spunk 2. It can be mainly classified into two types. First cosmos, the classical TN ( showcase I), which is due to neurovascular compression, the most common vessel causing the same being supreme cerebellar artery play alonged by anterior inferior cerebellar artery 3. Second type is atypical TN (Type II), secondary to causes like trauma, tumor, multiple sclerosis or herpetic infections. The distinction between thes e two types is mainly based on clinical symptoms 4, 5 as Type I pain is episodic in nature whereas Type II pain is more constant. TN is often called by many as the suicide disease 6 as the patients who suffer from it would rather take their lives than bear the pain.The initial line of treatment for TN is medical management by drugs like Carbamazepine, Gabapentin, Oxcarbazepine among early(a)s. endurings of type I TN may also be advised microvascular decompression. Those patients who do not respond or have contraindications to the above mentioned drugs or experience no change in the intensity of the pain are called Refractory TN 7. Such patients are advised invasive procedures like trigeminal nerve block neurolytic block, radiofrequency ablation, gamma knife surgery and balloon compression.We describe our experience in percutaneous management of pain by injecting neurolytic drugs in the suspension ovale under CT guidance in six patients, suffering from TN.Method and Materials usedP re procedural work upThe pre procedural work up included clinical military rating and thorough reading of the Magnetic Resonance imagination (MRI) scans of all the patients to rule out any neurovascular conflict. both patient with neurovascular conflict was considered an exclusion criterion in our study. These patients were reported taking the drugs for TN for over three months with no improvement in the pain. The pain bump off evaluation was done using Numeric military rating Scale 8 and Wong-Baker Faces Pain Rating Scale 9 as a baseline evaluating point to be compared to the same rack up system after the procedure. Routine investigations such as coagulation profile, liver function test, renal function test, HIV and HbsAg were done before the procedure.Numeric Rating ScalePatients rate pain on a number scale from 0-10, 0 being a depiction for no pain and 10 being the worst pain imaginable.Wong-Baker Faces Pain Rating ScaleThe Wong-Baker Faces Pain Rating Scale is a pain scale that was developed by Donna Wong and Connie Baker. The scale shows a series of faces ranging from a happy face at 0 (No Pain) to a crying face at 10 (Worst Pain Possible). The patient must take in the face that best describes how they are feeling.In our study, we use the Wong Bakers scale to assess the patients pain before and after the procedure.The neurolytic drugs and materials used in the procedure were 22 G spinal harass for block, 25 G acerate leaf for skin infilt symmetryn, 2% xylocaine , Iohexol Non ionic contrast medium, carbon% alcohol, 1ml syringe and normal saline solution.The patient was put in the supine position with head placed in reverse occipitomental position (chin up and neck extended), turned 30 to the opposite side of the block. The foramen ovale was identified under CT guidance and a virtual track was made starting from a point which was 2-3cms lateral to the angle of mouth on the skin to foramen ovale (Figure 1). in one case the trajectory of the molest and the foramen ovale was confirmed on CT scan, the skin at the point of entry was infiltrated by 2ml of 2% xylocaine using a 25G needle. Then, a 22G spinal needle was inserted at the same point and aimed in the direction of planned trajectory towards the foramen ovale (Figure 2). To prevent the needle from entering the oral cavity, a finger from inside the mouth can be used to guide the same 10. Though, we did not apply this in any of our patients.Following this, negative aspiration was attempted to check for Cerebro Spinal Fluid (CSF) or blood aspirate. If the aspirate contained CSF or blood then the needle had to be readjusted. Then 0.5ml of mixture made from 1ml of iohexol and 2ml of 2% xylocaine was injected into the target site in order to check the stretch out of shot and exact needle tip position. Once the tip of the needle touches the mandibular nerve root, the patient might complain of the exact similar pain which he/she has been suffering, thus confirming the accurate needle tip location. This injectant acts as a diagnostic block if the trigeminal ganglion is the pain generator with xylocaine providing anesthesia prior to alcohol injection.A mixture containing 3ml of 100% alcohol, 1ml of iohexol and 1 ml of saline was made. Of this 1ml of the mixture was injected into the foramen ovale (Figure 3 and 4). Post procedure check scan was performed to rule out any complication.Result assume position of the needle tip in the foramen ovale was seen in all the six patients thus achieving 100% technical success. All these patients achieved a significant take aim of substitute with an average pain soft touch of two immediately after the procedure. Twenty quaternary hours after the procedure, they rated their reduction of pain at an average pain score of one.Four out of the six patients ie Patient No. 1, 2, 4 and 6 were completely relieved of their pain with one year follow up without taking any medication.In Patient No. 3, the procedure was abandoned as during the diagnostic block, the injectant was seen tracking into CSF cistern and fourth ventricle.Patient No. 5 reported with a similar pain of TN within three months with a pain score of five, little less than the pre-procedure pain score of six. The pain was more severe in the pterygopalatine segment, hence a pterygopalatine block was carried out and the patient had a pain score of one twenty four hours after the procedure. Hence, the initial trigeminal neurolysis was partially successful in this patient.No post procedural complication was seen in any of our patients.DiscussionThe trigeminal nerve arises from the lateral pons at its superior to mid portion. It travels forward in posterior fossa and merges with the trigeminal ganglion in the Meckels cave. The trigeminal ganglion is located lateral to the erectile sinus. It gives three divisions ophthalmic (V1) segment which emerges from superior orbital fissure, upper jaw (V2) from foramen rotundum and mandibular (V3) from fora men ovale. The trigeminal nerve provides sensation for the face, mouth and supplies the muscles of mastication. TN mostly involves maxillary division and mandibular division of trigeminal nerve though it may also involve the ophthalmic division as well.The reported annual relative incidence rate of TN is about 4.5 per 100,000 persons 11 but the actual figures may be even much higher because of diagnostic challenges associated with the disease. TN is more common in females than males with a ratio of 32 and is usually seen after 50 years of age 11.Trigeminal nerve block is an upcoming treatment in TN patients who are refractory to medical line of management. It relieves the pain and also reduces the side effects of drugs which are used for the treatment. Earlier studies were mainly done using x-ray or fluoroscopic guidance which had its own limitations in terms of image quality and two dimensional views. In contrast to this, CT scan provides excellent and direct visualization of fora men ovale leading to correct placement of needle 12 and thus scoring over fluoroscopy. This reduces the chances of injecting neurolytic agents at improper locations and thereby reduces the side effects.In our cases, initial check CT scan was done by injecting 1ml of iohexol to determine whether the needle is in exact location. This doubly ensured us about the location as well as the spread of injectant. This was different from previous studies done using fluoroscopy where a diagnostic block using xylocaine had to be given in order to confirm the location of the needle tip.We used a mixture of 3ml of 100% alcohol, 1ml of iohexol and 1ml of saline for trigeminal neurolysis however, Han et al stated that trigeminal nerve block with high slow-wittedness of lidocaine (10%) is capable of achieving an negotiate period of pain relief, particularly in patients with lower pain and shorter duration of pain prior to the procedure 13.Alcohol spreads easily and should be used cautiously. The ot her agents which can be used but were not used in our study are phenol and glycerol.The side effects that may follow the procedure are numbness and hypoesthesia in the entire trigeminal nerve distribution. There can be abolition of corneal reflexes which can produce characterisation keratitis and dryness of eyes. Improper injection of alcohol into CSF space can lead to arachnoiditis/ meningitis.CASE 1, 2, 4 and 6These patients were suffering from trigeminal neuralgia with pain score ranging from six to eight before the procedure. All these patients have been taking carbamazepine for more than three months with no relief from pain. MRI showed no neurovascular conflict. These patients had a significant relief of pain with pain score at three months and twelve months being zero. None of these patients had to take oral medicines after the procedures.Fig 1 Site attach for needle Fig 2 Tip of the needle in forameninsertion ovaleFig 3 Dispersion of injectant in Fig 4 3D reconstruction sh owingthe foramen ovale needle tip in foramen ovale.Case 3This eighty year old male came with complains of leftfield(p) sided trigeminal neuralgia. He had been taking carbamazepine for four months with no change in pain intensity. The procedure had to be abandoned as after injecting the diagnostic block, the injectant was seen tracking into the CSF cistern in the cerebello pontine angle and fourth ventricle (Figure 5).Fig 5 CT scan showing needle tip in the left foramen ovaleCase 5This forty seven year old female came with complains of right sided trigeminal neuralgia. She had been taking carbamazepine for three months without any relief in pain. MRI scans showed no neurovascular conflict. The procedure was successful with pain score of one immediately after and at twenty four hours after the procedure (Figure 6). However, this patient came back within three months of the procedure complaining of pain, which was more in the pterygopalatine segment. A pterygopalatine block was done with resultant pain score of one at twenty four hours after the procedure and two at nine months of the procedure. Hence, this patient showed partial response to trigeminal neurolysis carried out initially.Fig 6 CT scan showing the tip of the needle in right foramen ovale.ConclusionPercutaneous injection of alcohol, iohexol and saline mixture at the verge of foramen ovale under CT guidance is an useful and promising method to relieve pain in patients of TN refractory to medical line of management. This technique is inexpensive, cost effective and a relatively painless procedure. Being a minimally invasive technique, the chances of any infection and other post operative complications are less. Since our study mingled only six patients, this technique needs to be further evaluated on a large sample size to substantiate the result of this procedure. Having said the above, we would like to emphasize that our initial experience of this procedure was quite impressing.AbbreviationsTN Tr igeminal NeuralgiaCT Computed TomographyCSF Cerebro Spinal FluidMRI Magnetic Resonance ImagingReferencesAndre N. Traite sur les maladies de lurethre. Paris Delaguette, 1756Merskey H, Bogduk N. Classification of chronic pain descriptions of chronic pain syndromes and definitions of pain terms. Seattle IASP Press 1994. P. 59-71Jannetta PJ. Microvascular decompression of the trigeminal nerve for tic doloreux. In Youmans ed. neurological surgery 4th edn. WB Saunders Co. Philadelphia. 1996 3404-15Cruccu G, Gronseth G, Alksne J, et al. AAN-EFNS guidelines on trigeminal neuralgia management. Eur J Neurol. 2008 15 (10) 1013-28Gronseth G, Cruccu G, Alksne J, et al. Practice parameter the diagnostic evaluation and treatment of trigeminal neuralgia (an evidence based review) Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the European Federation of Neurological Societies. Neurology. 2008 71 (15) 1183-90Michael D. Chan, Edward G. Shaw, Stephen B. Tatter . Radiosurgical Management of Trigeminal Neuralgia. In editor Pollock Bruce, Intracranial Stereotactic Radiosurgery, an Issue of Neurosurgery Clinics. Elseiver Health Sciences. 2013. pp. 613-621Cruccu G, Truini A. Refractory Trigeminal Neuralgia. Non-surgical treatment options. CNS Drugs. 2013 Feb27(2)91-6. doi 10.1007/s40263-012-0023-0.Hartrick CT, Kovan JP, Shapiro S (December 2003). The numeric rating scale for clinical pain measurement a ratio measure? Pain Pract 3 (4) 3106. doi10.1111/j.1530-7085.2003.03034.x. PMID 17166126.Wong-Baker FACES Pain Rating Scale Foundation Retrieved 6 December 2009.Michael J. Cousins In trigeminal nerve block. Cousins and Bridenbaughs Neural Blockade in Clinical Anesthesia and Pain Medicine. Lippincott Williams Wilkins, 29-Mar-2012, 410Allan B. Wolfson, Gregory W. Hendey, Louis J. Ling, Carlo L. Rosen, Jeffrey J. Schaider, Ghazala Q. Sharieff. In Bells palsy and trigeminal neuralgia. Harwood-Nuss Clinical Practice of requisite Medicine. Lippinco tt Williams Wilkins. June 23, 2009, 786Vctor Whizar-Lugo MD, Francisco Anzorena-Vallarino MD, Roberto Cisneros-Corral MD, Ricardo Valdez-Jeres MD, Rogelio Hernndez-Velazco DDS. Use of Computed Tomography Guide for Trigeminal Alcohol Neurolysis. Anestesia en Mexico Volume 20 No. 1 (January-April 2008)Han KR, Kim C, Chae YJ, Kim DW. Efficacy and safety of high concentration lidocaine for trigeminal nerve block in patients with trigeminal neuralgia. Int J Clin Pract. 2008 Feb62 (2)248-54. Epub 2007 Nov 23.

The comfort women

The relaxation women The rest women mercantile establishment has been a controversial exit since December 1991, where Kim Hak-sun and several other Korean women came for fightd in a lawsuit against the Japanese government demanding reparation as former easiness women.1 Undoubtedly, thither is an teemingness of literature concerning the rationalize from both Japanese and American scholars. In addition, the media illustrates some different positions that have been and are still argued today. Yuki Tanaka, however, provides an interesting analysis of Japans comfort frame in his book, Japans puff of air Women Sexual bondage and harlotry during earthly concern War II and the US Occupation. He begins on a personal raze concerning his father and uncles being part of the Kwantung Army one of many groups who participated in the comfort clay. Tanaka suggests that the Japanese soldiers were no monsters save average and banal human beings whose conjunction was a personal choice, not a mass conspiracy of evil.2 In essence, Yuki Tanakas book provides a sound examination of the origins and structure of the comfort schema during World War II, as well as its further establishment for the Allies during the US occupation. However, Tanaka neglects the issue of slavery and overemphasizes the issue of sex within the comfort women brass. enchantment this is not to say that he fails to acknowledge the slavery issue, his book is driven towards the universal connection between war and sex, in relation to his focus on the ideologies of masculinity and dominance as sole grounds for the brutality against comfort women in Japan and later on in the expanse of Asia. In this review, I examine Tanakas approach on the comfort women issue by evaluating how his literature is structured. I withal examine his literatures dependency on the aspects of dominance, masculinity and sex during the wartime as reasoning for his chosen direction on the comfort women issue. Lastly, I exami ne Tanakas use of terminology doneout his book and determine whether his chosen terminology indicates a trivial bias or an unconscious effort to categorize the differing levels of brutality in which the Japanese multitude and the affiliate occupation forces exploit comfort women.Tanakas motivating to further investigate the comfort women issue stems from the continued silence from his father and uncles concerning trustworthy Japanese war experiences. He suggests that he learned about his fathers wartime experiences through a historical filter, which is often a common practice with history-telling. Tanaka states that the silence warrants a further examination of the history of Japanese whoredom, as well as the practice of wartime prostitution by other nations, specifically the US and Australia.3 Although Tanaka does not excuse what Japan did to women during World War II, he explains that it was part of a permeative pattern of worldwide male aggression and domination.4 Ultimately , Tanaka universalizes certain aspects of Japans military prostitution and the institution of the comfort system. This provides an interesting and rational approach to the issue, since deeming the comfort system as an isolated incident would be careless and ignorant. Tanaka structures his book into six chapters the origins of the comfort women system, procurement of comfort women and their lives as familiar slaves, comfort women in the Dutch easternmost Indies, why the US forces ignored the comfort women issue, sexual violence committed by the confederate occupation forces, and Japanese comfort women for the confederate occupation forces. In chapter one, he provides a detailed illustration of the how the comfort system started and how it grew from mass recruitment, coercion, abduction and transaction. Tanaka specifically relates the structure of the comfort system to the karayuki-san system of overseas prostitution. He highlights the industrial nature of the Japanese military p rostitution system of utilise professional Japanese prostitutes to using Korean women in the comfort stations. In chapter two, Tanaka examines the significant issue of Korean women in comfort stations during Japans colonization of Korea. While most literature concerning the comfort women issue focus on the exploitation of Korean women, Tanaka analyzes the fortune pertaining to the use of Korean women as the main source for the comfort system. To enhance this aspect, he uses testimonies from Korean, Chinese, Taiwanese and Filipino comfort women victims to emphasize the drastic expansion of the system from China and the Shanghai Incident in 1932, to the entire Asia-Pacific zone after Japans attack on Pearl Harbor.5 In chapters three and four, Tanakas focus turns away from the Asiatic community and towards the international community to examine common characteristics of military prostitution between the Japanese military and the Allied occupation forces.6 Tanaka first examines the Dutch, Eurasian and Indonesian comfort women in the Dutch East Indies, where the Dutch military prosecute the Japanese military for crimes against the Dutch women, but not for the Asian women situated in the Dutch East Indies.7 The issue of race is a significant aspect to how the comfort system is structured, as well as how the US and other Allied occupation forces fail to prosecute the Japanese military for crimes against humanity for all comfort women victims. Tanaka highlights the aspect of racial discrimination to place responsibility on the Allied forces for exacerbating the issue by failing to take action against the Japanese military. He also examines how the US occupation forces, along with the British and Australian troops, retained similar policies of military-controlled prostitution8 as the Japanese military. In addition, Tanaka raises important questions pertaining to whether these policies are still a common practice in contemporary military forces, and whether this is sue is integral to the relationship between war and sexuality.9 Tanakas approach to the comfort women issue takes on a broader focus, which encompasses other nations as active participants in their acts of brutality against comfort women.In chapter five, Tanaka uses a wide variety of Japanese and American documents to examine the true nature of the Allied forces military-controlled prostitution and the extent of the violence and rape suffered by women. With this chapter, Tanaka aims to bring the problematic relationship between war and sexuality into the spotlight of the comfort women issue. In chapter six, Tanaka establishes that the characteristics of the wartime comfort system were similar to the Recreation and delight connective (RAA) established specifically for the Allied occupation forces. He maintains that the RAA was a less brutal establishment of military prostitution than that of the Japanese wartime comfort system. However, historian sour grass T. Wakabayashi argues that if the Allies sexual exploitation of women was less brutal, then, this was largely because it was more(prenominal) lucrative for the women.10 Throughout the book, Tanaka emphasizes the problem of venereal disease, which only increased as the comfort system expanded. While policies were implemented to prevent the spread of venereal diseases, none of the implemented polices attempted to discontinue the system. This, Tanaka suggests, shows how the preventive policies only increased venereal disease because soldiers were functional around the policies to find other ways to meet with prostitutes. By examining how Tanaka structures his book, his approach on the comfort women issue suggests that he believes the role of the Allied occupation forces in the comfort system is explained by the ideological relationship between war and sexuality. Tanakas approach to the comfort women issue is defined by his books dependency on the aspects of dominance, masculinity and sex during wartime. H e uses these aspects to universalize characteristics of the comfort system as an example of the relationship between war and sex. In addition, Joy Damousi also suggests that Tanaka views racism and patriotism as interrelated within the ideology of masculinity where sexual pervert of women symbolized the dominance of the conquerors.11 Wakabayashi, however, argues that Tanaka purposefully shifts the issues focus from Korea to the Asia-Pacific zone to look for charges of criminality from international law quite an than domestic law.12 Tanaka addresses the parallel between the violation of the womans body and the domination over the enemy on the battlefield. He states that the brothels and prostitutes were used because soldiers believed that women were there to help the soldiers who fought to protect their country.13 This eccentric person of reasoning indicates that the soldiers saw their relations with comfort women as a transaction of returned favors. Tanaka states that the soldie rs mindset stems from aspects of dominance and masculinity enforced in preparation for the war. Tanaka also theorizes that sexual activity, especially during wartimes, provides an escape from reality, similar to the effects of alcohol.14 Ultimately, it is used as a weapon against death. In relation to war, violence is needed when fighting wars, which translates into violence against women, in this case against comfort women. Physical domination over women, especially women of the enemy, translates into the humiliation of the enemy.15 This type of war mentality is very common, not just with the Japanese military, but with the Allied occupation forces as well. Wakabayashi, thus, questions why Japan is the only country under litigation if other Allied occupation forces from the US and Australia also vie a role in exacerbating the comfort system. A. Hamish Ion disagrees with Wakabayashis assessment and states that while the Allied occupation forces behavior was brute(a), it does not e quate with that of the wartime Japanese military.16 Ultimately, the sexual abuse of women is inevitable during wartime because soldiers are trained to exude masculinity and dominance, which Tanaka explains is the military culture of sexualized masculinity, a phenomenon common to military organizations regardless of nationality.17 Tanaka provides an interesting comparison between war and sexuality in relation to how this ideological relationship shaped the comfort system during World War II and into the US occupation. While Tanaka gives the impression that he believes the Allied occupation forces played a significant role in exploiting Asian women, he reasons that it was less brutal than the exploitation suffered during the wartime. Wakabayashi argues that Tanaka shifts the focus of the comfort system towards the Asia-Pacific zone for the purpose of using international law to evaluate the Japanese military. However, one must acknowledge that Tanakas shift in focus also emphasizes sex uality and its effect on war. For this reason, he concludes the use of sex was a main factor in sustaining military discipline.18 Tanakas use of terminology passim his book also factors into how he illustrates the comfort women issue. From examining his term use, the reader can question whether his literature depicts a bias or merely an effort to distinguish the severity of Japans military prostitution and the Allied occupation forces exploitation of women. Throughout his book, Tanaka does not use the term coerced the like many other authors do in their literature. Instead, he consistently uses the terms forced and recruit in reference to how comfort women were procured. This is especially pronounced in chapter two procurement of comfort women and their lives as sexual slaves, where Tanaka examines the parcel of Chinese and Filipino comfort women. Often times, the Japanese military did not have to conceal how they were treating civilians.19 In this case, using the term coerced im plies bullying and intimidation, while using the term forced implies an outright proactive recruitment. In addition, Prime Minister Shinzo Abes definition of coercion states that government authorities were breaking into private homes and taking women like kidnappers,20 which proves to be a fitting definition in the procurement of Chinese and Filipino comfort women. Tanaka also uses the term procure as a more general reference to how the Japanese military were obtaining and acquiring women for the comfort system. The overall use of this term encompasses terms such as coercing, forcing and recruiting in relation to the comfort system because it only specifies that the women were obtained, not the method in which they were obtained. Wakabayashi also hints at Tanakas slight bias when referring to sexual slavery for Japan and military-controlled prostitution for the Allied forces.21 Ultimately, Wakabayashi feels that Tanaka downplays occidental military sexual violence22 because he cat egorizes Japan and the Allies role in the exploitation of women differently. Wakabayashi also accuses Tanaka of being hypocritical because Tanaka states in his introduction that he means no offence by using terms such as comfort women and comfort stations in his literature, which he describes as cruel euphemisms.23 In addition, Wakabayashi is bothered by Tanakas use of the acronym RAA to refer to the Recreation and Amusement Association established specifically for the Allied occupation forces. However, it can be argued that Tanaka uses acronyms throughout his book, including the terms General Head Quarters (GHQ), venereal disease (VD) and Government Issue (GI). His use of acronyms could either mean he is attempting to save the reader from repeatedly reading venereal disease numerous times, or that he is trying to downplay the Allies involvement in the exploitation because most of his acronym usage is fit(p) in the chapters focused on the Allies. It is not difficult to see why Tana ka downplays the Allied occupation forces involvement, especially when he refers to terms such as prostitution and sexual slavery. In this case, prostitution implies payment of sexual union.24 Tanaka provides a brief examination of the structure of a comfort establishment by the Recreation and Amusement Association (RAA). The GI is to pay at the front desk and pick up a ticket and a condom before meeting with the comfort woman. In the morning, the comfort woman goes to the front desk to claim half of the money paid. Therefore, one could agree with Tanaka and argue that the RAA and the Allied occupation forces were not as brutal in their exploitation, which is why only Japan is involved in litigation concerning the comfort women issue. By examining Tanakas terminology throughout his book, one can establish that his use of certain terms indicates a bias, but not an unexamined one. His chosen terminology also emphasizes the sexuality aspect of war and its effect on how both Japanese an d Allied troops influenced the comfort system. This review centers around the argument that Yuki Tanaka overemphasizes the aspect of sex and not enough on the aspect of slavery. This is because Tanakas approach on the comfort women issue is dependent upon the relationship between war and sex. This relationship implies a universality of certain characteristics of the comfort system or at least characteristics of military prostitution exploited by all nations. By examining the structure of his book and the terminology he uses, one can identify that Tanaka aims to investigate certain war experiences that the erstwhile(a) generation of World War II, from Japan, the US and Australia, maintained silence about. In essence, Tanaka relies heavily on the aspect of sex where A. Hamish Ion also points out, the issue at marrow squash is not sex but slavery.25 Tanakas book provides an interesting yet reasonable approach to the comfort women issue. He manages to examine different sources from t he Japanese Archives, the Australian case Archives and War Memorial, as well as the US National Archives, which allowed him to map out patterns and continuities between military prostitution and war mentality. He provides many primary documents throughout his book, including comfort women and military officials testimonies, witness reports, statistical data as well as photographs. He attributes most of this research to his fourth and fifth chapters, which would have turned out differently had he not visited the US National Archives. Tanakas book not only provides insight to the origins and structure of the comfort system during World War II, but also establishes the Allied occupation forces as a major contributor for the silence maintained concerning the comfort women issue. Therefore from this abundance of information Tanaka provides, one can conclude that the established silence on the issue was not for the lack of resources, but because literature has over-examined different as pects of the same angle.1 I use the term comfort women without quotation marks throughout the review to stay consistent with the authors use of the term in his book.2 Yuki Tanaka, Japans ottoman Women Sexual slavery and prostitution during World War II and the US Occupation (New York Routledge, 2002) 3-4.3 Tanaka, Japans Comfort Women, 2.4 Tanaka, Japans Comfort Women, (Forward) xvi.5 Tanaka, Japans Comfort Women, 5.6 Raymond Lamont-Brown, Sex Slaves for the Emperor, Contemporary Review 281, no. 1640 (2002), http//find.galegroup.com.ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/gtx/start.do?prodId=EAIMuserGroupName=yorku_main, 181.7 Tanaka, Japans Comfort Women, 78.8 Tanaka, Japans Comfort Women, 92.9 Tanaka, Japans Comfort Women, 6.10 Bob Tadashi Wakabayashi, Review Comfort Women Beyond Litigious Feminism, Monumenta Nipponica 58, no. 2 (2003), http//www.jstor.org/stable/25066215, 245.11 Joy Damousi, Review untitled, The American Historical Review 108, no. 4 (2003), http//www.jstor.org/stable/3523712, 1122.12 Wakabayashi, Beyond Litigious Feminism, 249.13 Tanaka, Japans Comfort Women, 87.14 Tanaka, Japans Comfort Women, 174.15 Tanaka, Japans Comfort Women, 176.16 A. Hamish Ion, Review untitled, The International History Review 23, no. 2 (2003), http//www.jstor.org/stable/40109381, 475.17 Tanaka, Japans Comfort Women, 179.18 Damousi, Review, 1122.19 Tanaka, Japans Comfort Women, 48.20 Hirofumi Hayashi, Disputes in Japan over the Japanese Military Comfort Women System and its Perception in History, The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and mixer Science 617 (2008), http//find.galegroup.com.ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/gtx/start.do?prodId=EAIMuserGroupName=yorku_main, 124.21 Wakabayashi, Beyond Litigious Feminism, 243.22 Wakabayashi, Beyond Litigious Feminism, 243.23 Wakabayashi, Beyond Litigious Feminism, 244.24 Sarah Soh, From Imperial Gifts to Sex Slaves Theorizing Symbolic Representations of the Comfort Women, Social Science Japan journal 3, no. 1 (2000), http//scholarspo rtal.info.ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/, 65.25 Ion, Review, 474.

Hamlet: The Theme of Having A Clear Conscience :: Shakespeare Hamlet Essays

Hamlet The Theme of Having A Clear Conscience The most important line in Hamlet  is, The plays the thing, wherein Ill catchthe conscience of the king. (II, ii, 617).  In the play, the issue of a clearconscience forms a key motif.  When the conscience of the characters appears, itdoes so as a matter of some swear out as in the case of the aforementioned line,which follows Hamlets conversation with the player.  This line is of particularsignificance because it ties action and its effect on the conscience of thecharacters.  The temper of Hamlet is conscience, and action plays an importantrole in creating the development of the plot. No where is this development seen clearer than with Hamlet.  The Princesdevelopment comes as a result of the self-evaluation of the actions that havetaken place, and the turn up actions that he takes are a clear result of thisself-evaluation.  So, in essence, the actions cause him to think of hisconscience and then ac t upon these feelings.  Hamlets several soliloquies are awill to this method acting.  His first soliloquy, following a conversation withhis recently wed mother and uncle reflect the uneasiness he feels.  He feelsbetrayed.  O, most wicked speed, to post, with such manners to incestuoussheets. . . but break my heart, for I must hold my tounge. (I, ii, 156-159).Hamlets conscience tells him what is wrong-in this case, the hasty marriage-buthe is ambivalent as to how to approach it before he meets the ghost, tranquillize ishis method.  When Hamlet meets his fathers ghost however, he feels sure ofhimself, and knows what he must do.  As a result of the dialogue with the ghost,Hamlets conscience makes him feel that revenge is the best method to deal withthe problems that face him. The consciences of Hamlet, and to a lesser extent, Claudius, affect theirdecisions in the play.  However, both characters only question themselves afterthey have been prompted by some specific action or dialogue.  By self-evaluation,the characters then make the conscious decision to take action with theirfeelings.  An example of this is at the end of act II, following Hamletsconversation with the player.  In the soliloquy to end the act (whereupon themost important line is derived), Hamlet questions his passion for the plot hehas planned, and his conversation has clearly affected this ambivlance.  However,after mulling over his passion- or lack thereof-towards his plot, Hamlet endsthe soliloquy determined to carry out the play.  Hamlet is questioning hisallegiance to the pact he made with his father in Act I, but by the end of the

Barclays’ Internal and External Customers :: Business Management Studies

Barclays Internal and External CustomersBarclays offers a wide range of services to both intimate and externalcustomers. Internal customers are part of staff/colleagues that workin an organisation. Examples of inbred customers in Barclaysinclude Small Business Managers, Customer Relations Team, telephoneoperators, Financial Planning Managers, Customer helping staff,Counter staff, Accountants, Consumer Relations Team, and RelationshipManagers. External customers are the majority of individuals who livesin the local areas. Examples of external customers of Barclaysinclude disabled people, elderly, foreign people, parents, couples,widows, divorcees and students (from schools, colleges, anduniversities).Internal customersBarclays has number of internal customers who works for them, and alsodoes banking with them. About 5% of accounts belong to Barclaysstaff. It is very important for Barclays to have internal customersbecause, without them, the financial organisation will havedifficu lties to meet the ask of external customers. For example, ifyou image the organisation as an iceberg, only 1/10th is above thewater (the external customer), but 9/10th is hidden on a lower floor the water(internal customers) which, is supporting external customers. Thisgood example of importance of internal customers was extracted fromthe following websitewww.citysun.ac.uk/newonline/customercare/task1/intro.htm. So, if youremove the bottom half of the iceberg (internal customers), top halfof the iceberg (the external customer) will sink- in the other words,the whole organisation will come to an end. It is important forBarclays to dainty their internal customers in the same way, as theytreat their external customers.The advantages of having internal customers to employees* Better working conditions* Better job satisfaction* Less stress* Having the feel good factor* Being part of a good working teamThe advantages of having internal customers to the organisation* Less waste and stop pages* Improved communications* A happier workforce* Fewer problems* Increased customer homage* Better service to external customersThe advantages of having internal customers to the external customers* A higher, sustained level of service* Faster responses times* Knows that the organisation caresAs a result, internal customer care is based on good manners, knowingwhere your job fits in, working efficiently with colleagues, workingas a member of a team, and respecting colleagues needfully and rights.Organisations, such as Barclays believe that, there are three kinds ofattitudes and behaviours towards colleagues that would be essentialfor quality internal customer care1. Caring for colleagues- this would include reservation individuals feel good- this will help them to work better, they would become more cooperative, responding reasonably to their needs, and accepting a sense of shared responsibility2. Cooperating with colleagues- this would include can suck things