Police Organization Essay

I this paper I am going to explain to you the various types of police agencies at the local, state, and federal level and how each is organized. I will also identify the principal roles and functions of police organizations and their roles as they relate to the law. When I am finished with my paper you should have a better understanding of police organizing and how police organization works. The United States has one of the most complex law enforcement systems because of the various levels of their policing agencies. In the United stated each town, county, state, city, and small village has it’s oh policing agency. Even though there are various police agencies the structural organization is similar. This is because all law enforcement agencies have the same objective. The organizations of the police agencies are hierarchical. Police institutions can be analyzed like organizations with several key components (Alvarado, 2008). These organizations are designed with rank structure, separate departments and units. These components work together to form a fully functioning law enforcement agency. Some examples of local agencies are city, county, town, and incorporated village police. These agencies work together in order to ensure safety at a local level. There are many different functions and roles of the local police agencies. Local police are responsible for performing many routine activities. The duties include patrolling the neighborhood community, enforcing the law, providing emergency services, conducting investigations, and upholding community relations. Local police are not responsible for enforcing the law outside their jurisdiction and assistant is needed at a higher level (Congressional Digest, 1965). As far as state level goes there are also various agencies. These agencies include state and port authority police. State police agencies have many roles when it comes to the law. The state agencies are responsible for keeping the area within the state safe, keep our highways safe, and keep our parks free of crime, violent, and violations. Federal levels are responsible for coming in and stepping up when our lower levels of authority are in desperate need of help ( example: An older man meeting up with a girl whom he had met online). The FBI has to get involved when it comes to this. Sometimes also when dealing with federal you end up dealing with government as well. The FBI and other federal police help solve crimes that lower authority cannot handle or sometimes just need some help. So as you can see the police levels have to be well organized in order to be effective and in well working order. In this paper I have explained to you the various types of police agencies at the local, state, and federal level and how each is organized. I have also identified the principal roles and functions of police organizations and their roles as they relate to the law. You should now have a better understanding of police organizing and how police organization works.

Why Should the Factor of Political Stability Be at the Very Top of the List of Criteria Used to Evaluate the Attractiveness of Potential Foreign Investments?

Why should the factor of political stability be at the very top of the list of criteria used to evaluate the attractiveness of potential foreign investments? There are several issues that should be considered when evaluating the attractiveness of a potential foreign investment. Among them we can stress three main groups of criteria: general market risks, commercial risks and political risks (the ones in focus in this essay).Political risks are caused by changes in a country’s political structure or policies and, according to Hollensen (2007) ownership, operating and transfer risks are the main types that a marketer can face. Restrictions in repatriation of profits, change of government party, civil strife, revolution and wars can threat the attractiveness of a certain market. J. Eli Margolis (Estimating State Instability 2012) tried to create a method that could help warning such problems as the ‘Arabic Spring’.As we know today, it is not merely cheap labor that F DI is constantly seeking: political considerations must join the economic ones so the investment has the chance to be succeeded. As an example, we can talk about the Solomon Islands: after serious civil turbulence, law and order were restored and political and economic situation started improving gradually. However, political instability remained a challenge and so, a key obstacle in attracting foreign direct investment into the country. Trade Policy review-WTO). Despite all this evidence we can always find different opinions. According to Peter D. Bennett and Robert T. Green (JMR 1972), political instability can be considered as a primary consideration in foreign investment decisions only within combined contexts of region and economic development and not as a general reason. Risk is not just about the possibility of losing market share or profits. Politic stability is extremely important.Taking the Irish case as an example, their aspiration to be free from British dependency resul ted in a policy of strong macroeconomic stability and honest bureaucracy. As a result, nowadays more than half of the Irish economy is foreign owned. There is political risk in every nation but also a wide range of procedures that countries can adopt to become more attractive to foreign investment ( E. g. Ease or resolve instability through humanitarian or government aid – S. Korean/ N.Korean 1999). In conclusion, I can say that terrorism and corruption are great threats for FI but there is always a way to face the situation and succeed. A detailed analyses of the host market and anticipation of certain risks is essential for the success of the investment and that is why the factor of political stability should be at the very top of the list of criteria used to evaluate the attractiveness of potential foreign investments. Filipa Florencio 26/03/2013

Suenos de Una Tarde Dominical En La Alameda Central

The author of this mural is Diego Rivera. He is one of the most important artists in Mexico. Also, he had the capacity to involve the people in his work. Diego Rivera always focused his work on politics and history of Mexico. We have the clear example in Suenos de una Tarde Dominical en la Alameda Central. It was painted for Diego Rivera in 1947. The original mural was established in one of the principal walls in the Prado Hotel, but after the earthquake in 1985 it was removed to Palacio Nacional in Mexico City. As had been noted, Diego Rivera a long of 74m2 painted the most important events from Mexican history, dedicated for all the people. For this reason, I chose to analyze this source, because I like the Mexican history and I am fan of Diego Rivera. Suenos de una Tarde Dominical en la Alameda Central focused on the claim of Indigenas (native groups), that was a fundamental topic by Diego Rivera. Another important topic that is represented in the mural is the fight of the social classes. Besides this, the mural was designed in chronological order; it begins on the left side with the Conquest of Mexico. Diego Rivera in so many cases represented the figure of Hernan Cortez with a grotesque image but in this case, he represented Cortez with his hands bleeding. Also in the mural he painted the first New Spain Archbishop, Fray Juan de Saronga who in 1539 was ordered to burn alive one son of Nezahualcoyolt. This person was the first victim of the Holy Inquisition in New Spain. This terrifying institution was brought from Spain and burned alive all the people that were accused for heresy. In the mural this ritual is personified for Dona Mariana de Carbajal, who mounted on a donkey is driven to fire; she is followed by San Benito Verde, a symbol of the executioner. Likewise appearing in this section is Luis de Velasco who was the eighth viceroy in the New Spain, he opened the Alameda in 1592. In addition, an important figure in this mural is Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz, she was the most important poet in the seventeen century and a Woman’s Rights defender. On the other hand, the painter Diego Rivera devoted half of his life to painting murals. In some cases his work was misunderstood and destroyed. For example this mural, when it was opened one archbishop denied to bless the Prado Hotel because the mural has the phrase â€Å"God does not exist†. This phrase was written on a paper that was held for Ignacio Ramirez, who was a free thinker. A consequence of this was diverse Catholic’s groups attacking the mural. To avoid the damage it was covered for eight years until 1956, when it was showed again after the painter had already changed the phrase to â€Å"Conferencia de Arteletra de ano 1836†. In the second stage of the mural Diego Rivera painted Mexico as an Independent country. He also painted the figure of Antonio Lopez de Santana, who was general and political figure; he was president of Mexico for eleven years between 1833 and 1855. Next to Santana appears the Gral. Winfield Scott invaded Mexico in 1846, comanded his troops to occupy the Alameda during the invasion. Nonetheless, in the same section we have a mystery, some people question why Diego Rivera did not paint the principal figures of Mexico’s Independence. For example, Miguel Hidalgo and Morelos he did not consider them important figures, instead he chose the face of Iturbide who was in the Spanish military. Iturbide helped and supported the Independence of Mexico and was emperor of Mexico for ten months. In addition is important to mention that Diego Rivera in his mural mixed characters from history and folk. For example, the old man who was sleeping. In any event, Diego Rivera liked to present the history of Mexico in his murals. Other stages he represented were the reform and imperialism, Diego Rivera painted the character of Benito Juarez holding a role, in it is a phrase about respect. Among other people in the mural that is presented are Maximiliano and his wife Carlota. He was emperor of Mexico, during his period Carlota remodeled the Alameda because it was in bad condition. The reform was related with Benito Juarez and Imperialism was releated with Maximiliano de Hasburgo. Finally, the artist expressed the Porfiriato. It was denoted by the newspaper â€Å"EL IMPARCIAL† one of the most important newspapers in those years. Therefore, the mural has a lot of details and symbolism that focuses on the claim of Indigenas and on the social classes. For this reason, is important know that the mural was painted during the presidency of Miguel Aleman in Mexico. This period was relevant because he fought against the social classes such as Diego Rivera. He was also interested in the equality between the workers and entrepreneurs. Another important event was the reform of the third article in the constitution. In consequence, a lot of places like Bellas Artes and other important culture centers was remodeled and opened for all the people. Also, this reform prevented and combated the illiteracy in Mexico. The liberty of expression by the artist given more respect and artists like Diego Rivera could paint murals about the government and the injustice he experience from the government without a problem, except for some religious groups. In fact, this mural is an inspiration for all the Mexicans because it represented the most important events in the Mexican history. Also, this mural symbolizes all the people that fought for a better country in the different stages of the Mexican history. For example Benito Juarez, who was president of Mexico and established the Reform Laws. In the same way, Diego Rivera expressed his opinion about the injustice that some groups were subject to. Also the artist illustrated a day in la Alameda Central, one of the most important places in Mexico City. The placement of his mural was seen as an advantage, because it is in Palacio National the home of experts and critics in history, politic and art. For this reason Diego Rivera and his mural are an important piece for represent the pace and justice in Mexico.

Legal Aspects of Business Decisions individual 1(introduction to Essay - 1

Legal Aspects of Business Decisions individual 1(introduction to International law) - Essay Example The court concluded that Hong Kong is not a â€Å"foreign state† under the diversity statute, and, consequently, Matimak is not a â€Å"citizen or subject† of a â€Å"foreign state.† Issue(s): (1) whether Hong Kong is a â€Å"foreign state,† such that Matimak is a â€Å"citizen or subject† of a â€Å"foreign state†; (2) whether Matimak is a â€Å"citizen or subject† of the United Kingdom, by virtue of Hong Kong’s relationship with the United Kingdom when it brought suit; and (3) whether any and all non- citizens of the United States may ipso facto invoke alienage jurisdiction against a United States citizen. Reasoning: The fact that the Hong Kong Companies Ordinance may be â€Å"ultimately traceable† to the British Crown is too attenuated a connection. Matimak was incorporated under Hong Kong law, the Companies Ordinance 1984 of Hong Kong, and is entitled to the protections of Hong Kong law only. Cf. Cedec Trading Ltd. v. United Am. Coal Sales, Inc., 556 F.Supp. 722, 723-24 & n. 2 (S.D.N.Y.1983) (holding that corporations of the Channel Islands, a province which is part of the United Kingdom proper, governed by British law, and whose foreign affairs are entirely controlled by the United Kingdom, is a citizen or subject of the United Kingdom); Compare St. Germain v. West Bay Leasing, Ltd., No. 81-CV-3945, at 6 (E.D.N.Y. Sep. 30, 1982) (holding that a corporation of the Cayman Islands, whose corporate law is clearly independent from the United Kingdoms, is not a citizen or subject of the United Kingdom). Matimak is not a â€Å"citizen or subject† of a foreign state. It is th us stateless. And a stateless person—the proverbial man without a country—cannot sue a United States citizen under alienage jurisdiction. Kantor v. Wellesley Galleries, Ltd., 704 F.2d 1088, 1092 (9th Cir.1983); Sadat v. Mertes, 615 F.2d 1176, 1183 (7th

Re-write this document Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Re-write this document - Essay Example Wave pressure is expressed by both time and distance. Sound moves in a straight line in a medium of equal density (Funk & Wagnall, 1979), but sonar depends on the reflection of sounds that are conducted underwater. Whether sound is reflecting (throwing sound back from a surface) or refracting (bending the normally straight path of sound toward a new direction) is of great importance to sonar applications. Levels of stratification and levels of salinity greatly change how sound travels through shallow water. Accurate calculations and research will give sonar operations more accurate and reliable results. The speed and velocity at which sound travels through water was first researched by Sir Isaac Newton in 1687. He began these investigations when he discovered that measurements of sound as it travels through fluids relied only on the physical properties of the fluid, such as its elasticity and density. The first accurate measurements of the speed of sound in water were made in 1826 by the French mathematician Jacque Sturm. Further studies of how sound originated and was carried underwater became crucial from a military standpoint in World War I with the introduction of the submarine. Great progress was made in our understanding of sonar during World War II and the issue has received increasing attention in more modern times (Funk & Wagnalls, 1979). The speed of sound in water depends on different factors including temperature, salinity and wave depth (Derencin, 2002). There is a positive relation between water temperature and depth – as the depth increases, the water temperature decreases. The term ‘isothermal’ is used to describe a uniform water temperature (Standards and Curriculum Division, 1944). Sound travels slower as it encounters denser gas or fluid; therefore, the speed of sound in water is four times

Business enviornment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Business enviornment - Assignment Example Among the others factors that may impact the way business runs its activities is the external environment, which elements can manipulate company’s marketing and thus require the organization to make adjustments and revisions of its strategy and vision. It is known that customers are among those external elements that are able to influence the business the most and thus the company should know that good relationship with clients is based on finding ways to influence them to purchase one’s products. Besides, such political or legal forces that the government regulations develop play an important role in the cost of business doing and its ability to enlarge its activities in new markets. New regulations can increase one’s unit costs and thus affect company’s profit margins. Besides, for the organizations that act internationally, the laws of the other countries create certain obstacles for the companies in their ability to bring product into foreign markets. Among the other factors of external environment that influence the company’s performance are the economic factors that determine how market products and how much money one can spend on certain business growth. The public perception is also an important factor that can help the company to prosper or ruin its image at once. However, it is also up to company to commit such an influence on public opinion by using public relations professionals and strategic information, monitoring of public opinion in order to try and smooth potential issues. One of the best known tools that enable the company to analyze the factors that influence its activities the most, is the  PESTLE analysis. It is used to identify and analyze the key drivers in the business environment. The factors that may put an impact of one’s business activity go for political, economic, social, technological, legal and environmental factors and they should researched and brainstormed by each organization in order to

How the concentration of salt affect the rate of Osmosis Essay

How the concentration of salt affect the rate of Osmosis - Essay Example It does not require the provision of energy to be carried out. Osmosis is an important process for the living organisms because it is a part of many of the fundamental processes occurring in plants as well as animals. It is important for the transfer of fluids in the kidneys in human beings. It is also essential for the plants with regard to the process of photosynthesis. Therefore, it is important that this process should be understood clearly. There are many factors which serve as controlling and limiting factors in the process of osmosis. The concentration of salt also serves as an important factor in the process of osmosis. The addition of salt to a solution makes the solution hypertonic that is the concentration of salt increases in the solution and the water concentration becomes less. Similarly a hypotonic solution will be one which will have a lesser quantity of salt in comparison to the hypertonic solution and hence it will have a decreased salt concentration. If a selective barrier is formed between these two solutions which will only allow for the movement of water and prevent the movement of salt, the process of osmosis will occur. This process will follow the general rule of osmosis and water will naturally move from the hypotonic solution to the hypertonic solution.

Spirituality 4 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Spirituality 4 - Essay Example Although compassionate care giving stands out as an accepted social responsibility of the nurses, the practice defies professional ethics and requirements for health workers. This essay explores compassion fatigue form a processional and ethical perspective. Nurses and other caregivers often find themselves in a dilemma concerning the care they need to give to patients and their own welfare. Although health workers have a good understanding on the nature of human body its needs for rest and healthy lifestyles, they are bound by social and professional responsibilities (Joinson, 2007). Such responsibilities force them to neglect their personal needs. Although compassion fatigue is a major problem among health workers, most health professionals overlook the problem. According to Kottler (2005), the main reason why nurses overlook compassion fatigue is that they have become used to the problem making them to compromise with the fatigue. An interview conducted on nurses working in California hospital established that most nurses used medication to make them stay awake for long hours. The survey also established that most nurses had irregular sleeping periods due to workload or a desire to offer compassion services for their patients. This indicates that health workers need to have a concrete background on compassion fatigue symptoms. Compassion fatigue symptoms are identical to those of posttraumatic stress. Unlike posttraumatic stress, compassion fatigue symptoms are based on trauma. This indicates that they have a direct impact on the patient’s life and that the impacts can be demonstrated readily by their performance and behavior (Kottler, 2005). The basic concepts of compassion fatigue are emotional, cognitive, spiritual somatic and behavior. These concepts translate into symptoms and warning signs that characterize the condition. Standard

Lab report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 5

Lab report - Essay Example In this case, a stationary body can obtain kinetic energy from a moving. On the contrary, potential energy is totally not transferable to other body, but it can be converted to kinetic energy. Potential energy is directly connected with forces. If the work done on a body by a force that moves from point A to B is independent of the path between the two points, then the work done by this force is assigns a scalar value on each point in space and referred to as a scalar potential field. This means that the integral equation drawn from the line representing the change of force between these two points can be defined as the negative of the vector gradient and it gives the potential field. This potential field is the equivalent of the change in potential energy between the two points. This explains why the spring’s potential energy is given as a negative value. The negative sign denotes the convection that work done by a force field increase the PE while work applied against the force field reduces the potential energy It is important to note that work is required to either reduce or increase the potential energy of a body. In this case, a change in potential energy principally reflects the work done on the object. Therefore, the integral derivative of a PE function will give the amount of work done. Again the value is given as a negative figure to denote that the work done has reduced the PE possession of the body. 1. A normal pendulum with a few modifications can be used to achieve similar objectives. In this case, a zero position for the pendulum is identified. Since many labs are done on tabletops, the table top is assigned to be the zero height (mean) position. If the tabletop is designated the zero position, then the PE of an object is dependent on its relative height from the tabletop. Therefore, by obtaining the mass of the pendulum and its relative height from the table top, the gravitational

Affirmitive Action initiatives Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Affirmitive Action initiatives - Coursework Example s owing to the fact that the US has become increasingly dominated by people from the Asian and Mexican decent that have dominated the work force in the past. This has made it increasingly difficult for companies to make out the individuals that qualify for affirmative action. This being said, I think that biracial individuals should be counted for Affirmative Action initiatives based on their lineage and simply not by looking at the color of their skin. This is because looking at the skin color can be deceiving. Secondly, it is important to look at the social status of the individuals. Some biracial individuals are well-off and may not be in need of the affirmative action. Biracial individuals should also be counted based on where they come from (Korgen, 1999). This is because some of them live in highly marginalized areas and are in dire need of the affirmative action within the work place. Finally, affirmative action should be based on the academic background of the individuals. Some biracial individuals are well educated and may not require Affirmative

Management Business Plan of Bar Restaurant Assignment

Management Business Plan of Bar Restaurant - Assignment Example The sales forecast is for about $200,000 for year two, which is estimated for year three to $290,000. Net profit is expected tobe negativein the first year and then become %in years two andthree. 1.1 Keys to Success Boschetto has identified several business factors that must be implemented in order to succeed in this competitive market. 1. Design effective Logistics procedures. This is especially important for a bar restaurant where, without logistics there will be problems in demand and supply and in addition, employ theft could cause the business a lot of damage. 2. Offer exceptional customer service. 3. Improve continuously the business model. 1.2 Mission It is Boschetto's mission to become a premier meeting spot for London professionals who are interested in high quality light cuisine and wine. Boschetto will accomplish this by offering abundant Italian finger food and wine, at reasonable prices. By providing the London market with the opportunity to gather and have an exciting meeting point will become a London favorite. The business strong belief is that a successful business is based on satisfied customers. 1.3 Objectives To become one of the premier meeting points in London that offers Italian finger food and wine. To grow thetrend of drinking wine and enjoy light food with it in contrast to beer and sandwiches. Become profitable by year two. Market Analysis Summary Boschetto's target customers are working people age 30-45 yrs old. Upper middle and middle class and Dinkies of the same characteristics. Both groups are interested in light Italian food Both groups are interested in having a regular meeting point which will look rather exclusive and posh but they have some differences therefore they need to be reached differently. 2.1 Target Market... This essay describes a Boschetto, that is a new bar restaurant, that is located in London. Boschetto is a combination of a bar and a restaurant serving Italian finger food. While there are many Italian restaurants in London, there are no Italian bar restaurants even though the demand is quite apparent. These restaurants are always filled with people. The researcher states that Boschetto is aimed to meet the unmet demand in London with a bar restaurant offering an extensive wine list and high quality Italian finger food fine. Boschetto will be lead by Chiara Mastroianni. Chiara received her undergraduate degree in Business Management from University of Wales. It is also Boschetto's mission to become a premier meeting spot for London professionals who are interested in high quality light Italian cuisine and wine. Boschetto will accomplish this by offering abundant Italian finger food and wine, at reasonable prices for middle and upper middle class. The researcher hopes that by providin g the London market with the opportunity to gather and have an exciting meeting point will become a London favorite. The business strong belief is that a successful business is based on satisfied customers. Boschetto is planned to open in the first quarter of 2009. It is concluded that prior to the opening, all appropriate market research, concerning the targeted market segments, will be conducted as well as all the necessary promotion such as advertisements that inform the public about Boschetto will be executed.

Learning outcome Essay Example for Free

Learning outcome Essay 1.1 explain own role and responsibilities and boundaries of own role as a teacher . Write a essay explain the your role and responsibilities including the limits of your teaching role. Word limited (200) 1.2 Identify key aspects of relevant current legislative requirements and codes of practice within a specific context -The student will write a essay explaining the NEW STANDARDS FOR TEACHERS AND TRAINERS. Explaining the new standards expected, including details of Health and Safety. Make a list of location where you can research changes to your subject topic including details of location and the method of research. 1.3 identify other points of referral available to meet the potential needs of students -Draw a mind map for your preferred learning style and include it within your portfolio. 1.4 identify issues of equality and diversity and ways to promote inclusion -Define equality and diversity. -What does the term inclusive mean? (100 words) Place copies of equal opportunities policies from a number of companies if your company does not have any. -Write a short essay explaining the importance to address the issues of qualify , diversity and inclusion within your training area. (200 word) 1.5 Explain the need of record keeping. Write a reflective piece explaining how you feel about keeping paper work and record keeping. (200) 2.0 understand appropriate teaching and learning approaches in the specialist area. 2.1 Identify and demonstrate relevant approaches for a specialist teaching area. -Write a brief essay explaining the approaches for a specialist teaching area. (200) 2.2 Explain ways to embed elements of functional skills in the specialist area. -With reference to an experience teacher you have previously observed in your specialist area. Explain how your teacher can keep up to date with their teaching practice in their specialist teaching area? How can your teaching incorporate communication and numeracy? 2.3 Justify the selection of teaching and learning approaches for a specialist session. in reflective piece explain a teaching session that you have delivered and the reason you have used a teaching approached. If you are not teaching currently, explain a teaching approach that you have seen for a spe cific session. 3.0 Demonstrate session planning skills. 3.1 Plan a teaching and learning session which meets the needs of individual students. -complete a full teaching plan for the micro teaching session. (presentation) 3.2 Justify selection of resources for a specific session. -Write a brief essay of (100) explaining the reason for the use of specific resources within your teaching session. 4 Understand how to deliver inclusive sessions which motivate students. 4.1 Explain ways to establish ground rules with students which underpin appropriate behavior and respect for others. Write a brief statement explaining methods of establishing clear ground rules . Give a examples of a ground rules list. 4.2 use a range of appropriate and effective teaching and learning approaches to engage and motivate students. Feedback sheets for other students 4.3 Explain and demonstrate good practice in give feedback Complete a essay explaining good practice and examples of bad practice. 4.4 Communicate appropriately and effectively with students. copy of the feedback from lead instructions and internal Verifier. 4.5 Reflect on and evaluate the effectiveness of own teaching. Complete a reflection on the effective of the teaching method used and the ways you can improve your teaching practices. 5 understand the use of different assessment methods and the need of record keeping. 5.1 Identify different assessment methods -Write a reflection piece on the type of assessment you have experienced during your training time and school experience and the methods that have been effective and ineffective. (200 words) 5.2 Explain the use of assessment methods in different contexts, including reference to initial assessment. -Write a essay explaining the use of assessment methods and the different times you would use this method including details of initial assessment prior to starting a course. Including details of the types of assessment that are suitable for different areas. How can you use this assessment techniques be used to assessment learner progress. 5.3 Explain the need for record keeping in relation to assessment. -Briefly explain the need for record keeping due to the fact and relationship of the awarding bodies and the requirement of tractability of all document and processes.

Meaning And Importance Of Intellectual Property Philosophy Essay

Meaning And Importance Of Intellectual Property Philosophy Essay Intellect is the power of the mind, the power of mind to think and imagine and innovate. Intellectual property is that kind of property which is a thought by ones mind. It is the property over certain ideas of the mind. Certain creations of mind are recognised as special creations and they can be protected through law. There is a different branch of law known as intellectual property law which deals with the legal aspect of intellectual property. Intellectual property is basically an intangible asset as it cannot be seen or touch but its affects can be felt. Artistic works, musical works, discoveries etc come under the scanner of intellectual property laws. These can be discovered by anyone, but the first one to discover them usually gets to have a legal right over his findings. Copyrights, trademarks, patents and trade secrets are some common types of intellectual property rights that one may resort to legally protect ones discoveries or thoughts. The term of intellectual property i s not very old and it has come to the surface in the 19th century itself. It was in the late of the 20th century when finally the word intellectual property gained importance in the world. It gained the most acknowledgement and importance firstly in the United States of America. Intellectual property owners with the help of intellectual property rights benefit from their intellectual property by earning monetary gains from it. Such property provides financial incentives to them. As the economic conditions of the world have become better more and more emphasis on intellectual property rights is being given these days. Especially in developed countries like U.S.A. and U.K. intellectual property plays a major role in the overall economy of these countries. As large as two thirds of the total assets of these countries can be traced back to nothing more than intellectual property i.e. intangible assets. Not only this, a recent study has found that businesses which have intellectual properties as their assets were earning more revenues than companies which did not have any intellectual property. Some economists suggest that strengthening the intellectual property system directly benefits the overall economic conditions of enterprises. Intellectual property rights are usually applicable to goods and services which can usually be used by one and all. This implies that even though a person may claim to have an intellectual property right on any given good, this will not stop or hinder any other person from using such goods. Intellectual property recognises the efforts of an individual. For example we can say that a certain individual formulated a given scientific formulae and he got intellectual property rights over that formulae. Even in such a condition anyone and everyone who wishes to use that scientific formulae for an experiment is allowed to use it, the creators intellectual property rights do not and cannot bar him from using that formulae. Moreover economists also agree that patents and copyrights do not create monopolies they just simply act as rewards for people who have discovered new things. They only facilitate monetary rewards for the discoverers as remuneration for their efforts but in no possible way do intellectual property rights create monopolies. Although intellectual property has gained a lot of importance around the world, but it has never stayed out of controversies and it has always been criticised by many. Some go up to the level and claim that the term intellectual property itself is meaningless and creates confusion and is of no use at all. Some economists believe that copyrights and patents are harming the concept of a free world where anyone and everyone have equal rights to do business. Some people believe that intellectual property rights harm public interests. The intellectual property laws need to expand more and diversify more in order to gain importance and credit. WHAT IS INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY EXACTLY? Intellectual Property more commonly known just as IP is nothing more than the creations of a mind of an individual. These create various inventions, names, images, design etc. Intellectual property is usually sub-divided into two categories: Industrial intellectual property and Copyrights. Industrial intellectual property includes acts like inventions, trademarks and industrial discoveries etc. Copyrights may include works of art and literature. These may be poems and novels and plays etc. Any kind of innovation by an individual or a group can be called as their intellectual property. Even traditional discoveries by local communities are their intellectual property. But since these practices are traditional so most of the times they are not given the status of being intellectual property. We need to understand that most of the things around us have an origin and at some point of time in the history they must have been invented. Anyone who was involved in inventing that device or article can claim that object to be his or her intellectual property. Intellectual property rights have a huge impact on international trade and indigenous trade. In todays modern world intellectual property and its rights have become more important. With the invention of internet and as the world has become more and more dependent on using internet the chances of ideas being stolen and being misused have become higher and higher. Due to this people who invent or discover anything new have to get them patented or copyrighted as soon as possible. Misuse of ideas generated by other persons has become one of the most common crimes of these days and the only sufferers are the inventors and discoverers. Ideas are becoming a more and more important aspect of trade in the modern world. All kinds of high technology products in the market today are born out of great ideas of individuals. Invention, research, design these are the pillars over which new discoveries are being made today. Intellectual property rights have added a lot of intrinsic value to all kinds of products. For example in the clothes industry a particular brand name is nothing but intellectual property, a brand name is an intangible asset. But clothes sell because it has a brand name, so here we see and understand that how intellectual property adds value to products. Creators of various products and services and people who have various ideas have the right to protect their ideas and similarly they have the right to share their ideas with others too. INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN VARIOUS PARTS OF THE WORLD: The importance of intellectual property and their rights varies in different parts of the world. Various law enforcement agencies around the world give different levels of importance to intellectual property. Intellectual property now a day has become more and more important and almost all the countries who depend on international trade are taking some interest in intellectual property and its related rights. It has been found by a study that intellectual property rights are a reason of stress and tension amongst countries who indulge in international trade. It becomes difficult for inter-country trade to take place smoothly if there are a lot of intellectual property rights which are present. Moreover the indigenous industrialists and other people who have innovated are harmed if their intellectual property rights are completely abolished. Therefore it is a must for the countries to strike a balance between the two. In the new century common intellectual property rights are being formed by various countries in order to get over hindrances and problems of trade. This is seen as a positive step by all and it is almost assured that this step will benefit the international step positively. The TRIPSs agreement of the world trade organisation is one such step which defines the level of intellectual property rights a given member can enforce and this has helped in narrowing the gap in international trade. This agreement defines basically the minimum level of intellectual property protection that a government can give to its citizens and it also defines the maximum level of intellectual property protection which may be provided by a member country. The countries must form their intellectual property rights and laws in such a manner that a balance is struck between long term benefits and the short term losses that a countrys citizens may need to pay. Society will benefit if intellectual property rights encourage protection up to only a limit and such rights are given in special cases only. But the concerned governments should also ensure that some basic level of protection for intellectual property must also exist and they should be properly applied and the peoples right must be protected properly. (Intellectual property: Protection and Enforcement) WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO PROTECT INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY? Issues regarding intellectual property are growing by the day. There are a lot of talks going on related to intellectual property rights these days. Most of the times, these issues are given more attention. The aspect of protecting intellectual property has become more important these days than it should be. It is demanding far too much attention that it deserves in reality. We need to understand the basics and look into the fact that why in the first place was intellectual property rights formed. We need to understand what role do such rights play in todays world. We come at a conclusion that protecting intellectual property rights of individuals and groups and companies is a basic social requirement. It is a need of any society to have its intellectual property rights protected more than anything else. COPYRIGHTS INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY ON THE WORLD WIDE WEB: Protecting intellectual property plays an important role in the overall development of the nation on the grounds of economy, society etc. Copyrights are one of the most important forms of intellectual property rights. Copyrights are nothing but an assurance to people that they are allowed to reap the fruits of their hard work and they will get the credit that is due to them for inventing something new. As we know that social intellectual property rights also play in intrinsic part in the social development of any society. Copyrights in particular are used more while protecting social intellectual property. Artists and creators protect their intellectual property with the help of copyrights. Now a daze a new concept of piracy has developed in the modern world. Piracy is the unofficial use of copyrighted material. Movies and songs around the world are being pirated on a very wide scale. Songs and movies are copyrights of their producers and they have the right to earn money whenever someone is using them, due to piracy the work of art and hard work is being distributed around the world without the producers getting any money from it. This is the reason why downloading pirated movies and songs have become illegal in countries like United States of America, United Kingdom, and Australia etc. Cyber crimes are one of the main threats to intellectual property. The most common source of damaging intellectual property in the 21st century is through the internet. But it must be noted here that most of the count ries in the world still have no laws against cyber crimes and now laws to protect intellectual property from being misused through the internet. It must be also noted that by the turn of the 21st century the intellectual property rights had also become rigid in many countries which were applying them since the 1980s and 90s. It had almost become impossible for people to enter into many fields because they had become so rigid, and companies which were already in a given field had got patented and copyrighted almost anything and everything that could be researched in that field. There were many areas of business which were being dominated by large production houses and such production houses had virtually created their monopoly with the help of misusing the intellectual property rights. The areas in which patent can be taken are being cut down and existing patents and copyrights which are basically being misused are also being taken away. We must realise that striking a balance when it comes to intellectual property rights is becoming very important. More than often we are finding that such intellectual property rights are misu sed by the rich and powerful rather than being used to protect their interests. They use such rights in order to prevent others from progressing and not to prevent their own property being misused. (Intellectual Property-Rights and Wrongs) Governments should also realise that not only is striking a balance important to protect the society but its also important when it comes to international trade. SHARING MATERIAL: The debate on whether to share or not the copyrighted material is a never ending one. There are a thousand views and no one can be said to be the perfect one. As the 21st century has dawned in people have discovered various methods of sharing material. A new term called peer to peer (P2P) sharing has developed. Peer to peer sharing is happening on an unimaginable scale over the internet every second. Most of it is happening for free and the content it involves is usually copyrighted. Keeping aside the arguments and debates sharing material should depend on whether the owner of the material has realised his cost out of the article and his profit out of it, if yes, then the material should be shared otherwise no. This is the simplest and the most affective argument related to sharing which experts have. CONCLUSION: As we conclude this report we find out that intellectual property the concept itself is not very old. This concept was formed somewhere in the late 19th century. Although it has gained huge popularity only in the 1970s and after that it is continuously increasing. Intellectual property itself could be defined as new ideas and techniques, and new discoveries etc. Intellectual property is an intangible asset. As the concept of intellectual property has gained importance even the concept of intellectual property protection has also gained importance. Countries like England, U.S.A., and Australia are more stringent while applying intellectual property protection. Developing and under-developed countries have less protection to provide to intellectual property. Intellectual property has become a very important part of many businesses and industries in developed countries. Intellectual property is very important and all nations should have laws to protect intellectual property. All nations must duly recognise the intellectual properties of their individuals. We must understand that intellectual property despite being intangible is very important. Economists all around the world have agreed that intellectual property adds huge value to subjects. As the concept of intellectual property has grown so has the criticism around it grown. People believe that the concepts of intellectual property and its protection only create confusions and complications in trade and it is hardly useful at all. With the 21st century knocking on our doors intellectual property protection has become very important as there are many ways now that one can have his intellectual property misused and abused. With the development of internet and its vast usage all throughout the world, crimes related to misuse of intellectual property have grown. Articles, pieces of art like movies and songs which are copyrighted to protect the rights of their producers are being openly misused on the internet through piracy. Last but not the least in order to improve the international trade and in order to ensure long term development of society, countries need to strike a balance on how to protect the peoples intellectual property. The laws should not be too lenient neither should they be too stringent.

Anselms Ontological Argument

Anselms Ontological Argument In this essay I shall describe Anselms ontological argument and look at how it may prove Gods existence. I will then go on to look at criticisms of the argument from both Gaunilo and Kant to see if they can show that the argument does not work and if not, why not. The core of Anselms ontological argument uses a reductio ad absurdum structure to attempt to prove the existence of God. He does this by showing that if the negation of the conclusion is followed then this leads to absurdity (a false or nonsensical conclusion). Anselms argument is as follows: If therefore that than which nothing greater can be conceived exists in the understanding alone [and not in reality], then this thing than which nothing greater can be conceived is something than that which a greater can be conceived. And this is clearly impossible. Therefore, there can be no doubt at all that something than which a greater cannot be conceived exists in both the understanding and in reality. This quote is somewhat confusing due to the language used so a simplified version may be of some use. The argument can be seen as such (1) God is something which nothing can be greater than; God is the being of maximum greatness. (2)It is completely possible that God can exist within reality ; God, no matter whether he actually exists within reality, can exist within some circumstances, therefore God may possibly have existed within our world. (3)Now if something exists entirely and only within the constraints of the mind and does not exist in reality but is still possible then it is plausible that that something which exists only within the mind may have been greater. (4) Now imagine that God exists only within the mind and does not exist in our reality (this can be seen to be God not actually existing at all), this allows for the idea that there is a possible entity which is greater than God. (5)So it can be a possibility that there is a being or entity which is greater than God! (6)Because God is the greatest and there is nothing which can be greater than God (as stated in point 1) then this argument has shown that there is something which can be greater than that which nothing can be greater than! Because statement 6 makes no sense due to it being self contradictory God must exist not just in the mind but also at the same time in reality. This argument has been given in many different forms over time and I will cite one here to show that the interpretation given above is not too far removed from other interpretations. The following interpretation is given by Plantinga: God exists in the understanding but not in reality. (Assumption for reductio) Existence in reality is greater than existence in the understanding alone. (Premise) 3. A being having all of Gods properties plus existence in reality can be conceived. (Premise) 4. A being having all of Gods properties plus existence in reality is greater than God. (From (1) and (2).) 5. A being greater than God can be conceived. (From (3) and (4).) 6. It is false that a being greater than God can be conceived. (From definition of God.) 7. Hence, it is false that God exists in the understanding but not in reality. (From (1), (5), (6).) 8. God exists in the understanding. (Premise, to which even the Fool agrees.) 9. Hence God exists in reality. (From (7), (8).) This interpretation basically follows the same structure as mine and uses the reductio ad absurdum principle to prove Gods existence. Now we have seen how the argument works we must look at some criticisms of Anselms approach. One of the most successful and effective criticisms is given by Gaunilo. He attacked Anselms argument by stating that his reductio ad absurdum could be applied to many things and not just god. For this reason he believed that Anselms argument was not a valid or acceptable way to justify Gods existence. Gaunilo used the example of the greatest possible island (originally conceivable but we shall use possible for cohesions sake). He went on to apply Anselms argument to the greatest possible island to prove the existence of this fictional island using the same style of reasoning which Anselm used to prove the existence of God. Now if somebody told me that there was an island greater than all other islands ever I would have absolutely no problem understanding the words which they used or the concept they were attempting to divulge. But if they then went on to state that because I can imagine the island in my mind then the island must be possible then I would have serious doubts about thi s concept (and their sanity for that matter). What follows will be Gaunilos criticism placed into the format of Anselms reductio ad absurdum argument : (1) Best island is an island that nothing can be greater than; Best island is the island of maximum greatness. (2)It is completely possible that Best island can exist within reality; Best island, no matter whether it actually exists within reality, can exist within some circumstances, therefore Best island may possibly have existed within our world. (3)Now if something exists entirely and only within the constraints of the mind and does not exist in reality but is still possible then it is plausible that that something which exists only within the mind may have been greater. (4) Now imagine that Best island exists only within the mind and does not exist in our reality (this can be seen to be Best island not actually existing at all), this allows for the idea that there is a possible island which is greater than Best island. (5)So it can be a possibility that there is a land or island which is greater than Best Island! (6)Because Best island is the greatest and there is nothing whic h can be greater than Best Island (as stated in point 1) then this argument shows that there is a possible island which is greater than the island that no island can be greater than. Because statement 6 is self contradictory then Best Island must exist not just in the mind but in reality at the same time. This argument seems to show that Anselms argument to prove God can be used to prove a lot of seemingly ridiculous ideas, for example greatest possible bouncy castle or greatest possible goat. On first impressions it would seem as though this argument goes a long way to disproving Anselms argument for God but there is a problem with this. Gaunilos argument doesnt actually tell us what is wrong with Anselms argument; although it shows that seemingly ridiculous conclusions can be proved to be true it does not specify what is exactly is wrong or invalid about Anselms argument. It does not state that any of the premises are wrong and neither does it show the conclusion to be invalid. In fact if Anselms argument is looked at in terms of logic then there is nothing wrong with it at all. Although this is the case, Gaunilos criticism is still a fairly weighty one due its ability to prove absurd conclusions. As with every objection there is always a response so now lets look at some responses to Gaunilos weighty criticism. One of these responses focuses on the idea of the greatest possible island (or best island). It states that the greatest possible island can actually not exist. My conception of the greatest possible island almost certainly differs from your conception of the greatest possible island. For example I may prefer there to be a lot of animals on the island, dangerous and non dangerous and a lot of trees. Whereas you may prefer to only have non dangerous animals and mostly open areas on the island. This shows us that although subjectively there is the possibility of the greatest possible island on a large objective scale there can be no such thing. In other words there is nothing within the definition of an island that allows for maximum greatness within a certain island. The oxford English dictionary defines an island as a piece of land surrounded by water. Clearly there is nothing there which could allow for one island to be greater than all others. It mentions nothing of the depth of water surrounding the island, whether or not there are inhabitants of the island, the size of the island etc. This is not the same for God though. Anselm describes God as maximum perfection of which nothing can be greater. The idea of God cannot be pulled away from the description of God. God is that which nothing can be greater than. This differs from the greatest possible island as the idea of perfection is a separate concept which has be added to the idea of an island. So it seems that although Gaunilos objection on first inspection is a good one it misses the point that maximum perfection cannot be separated from the concept of God whereas maximum perfection can be separated from the concept of an island. The final objection that I will look at comes from Kant, the very man who coined the phrase ontological for Anselms argument. Kants argument works by rejecting premise (3) (if something exists entirely and only within the constraints of the mind and does not exist in reality but is still possible then it is plausible that that something which exists only within the mind may have been greater). Kant states that the Anselms argument is based on the idea that a God which exists is greater than a God which does not. Kant believes this to be false and confusing. In this objection Kant states that existence is not a property which can be possessed, or not possessed by an object. He goes on to say that existence, if it not a property, is a concept which refers or corresponds to something within our world (universe). In other words if something exists then there will be an example of the thing that exists in our world. A way to illustrate this is by giving the example of a ball. This ball is blue, round, fairly heavy and has the diameter of 50cm. Now if I say that this ball exists it does not add any properties to this ball, equally if I say that it doesnt exist it adds no properties to the ball. When I say that it exists I am merely saying that there is an example of this ball within our world. When one applies this to the argument we can see why Kants objection is so well accepted amongst those who reject the ontological argument. If existence is not a property then a God which exists and a God which does not exist are absolutely identical. Both are omnipotent, omnipresent and so on. If they are both identical then Anselm cannot claim that a God which exists is greater than a God which does not exist. If this is the case then the ontological argument fails as premise three is false! One response to Kants objection is that existence adds something to our conception of a subject. If I read about superman believing that he existed I would be very impressed with his powers and what he has done etc. If then I discover that superman does not exist I may be disappointed and my conception of him may change. This then allows for existence to alter my conception of a subject thus allowing for a God that exists to be different, slightly, to a God which does not exist. This response seems somewhat weak though and I believe that Kants objection still stands. To conclude I have found that, through Kants property based objection, Anselms ontological argument fails to provide a decent way of proving Gods existence. Because Existence cannot be seen to be a property then the ontological argument fails. Gaunilo also provides some criticism of Anselm through showing that the ontological argument can be used to prove all kinds of ridiculous conclusions (if one accepts that the idea of maximum perfection can be separated from the concept of God). So because the ontological argument fails to defend itself adequately against criticism I believe that it fails as a way to prove Gods existence.

Affirmative Action: A Counter Productive Policy :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  By definition, racism is the discrimination of prejudice against race. Discrimination, by definition, is treatment or consideration based on class or category rather than on individual merit. In 1961, when President John F. Kennedy issued Executive Order 10.925, he was indicating that individual businessmen should take affirmative action to ensure applicants and employees are treated â€Å"without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin.† His executive order implied equal access and nothing else. The system that has evolved since is a perversion of the original intent of affirmative action. The stipulations that make up affirmative action today are too narrow to effectively help in the fight against racism and discrimination.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Affirmative action has the capability of causing reverse discrimination. Discrimination against white males is just as bad as discrimination against any minority. Some people say that affirmative action is justified as a way of making up for past discrimination. Although discrimination still exists in the United States today, as it does in the rest of the world, most African Americans entering the job market today, were born after the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Because of this, most African Americans have suffered little or no oppression in terms of slavery. When the Civil Rights Act was passed, its spirit was not one of reverse discrimination, but of getting employers to consider applicants candidly in filling jobs within their companies. Hubert Humphrey, a major sponsor of the Act, was quoted during a 1964 interview swearing that he would â€Å"eat the bill if it were ever used for discrimination of any sort.† Yet, it has promoted just that, discrimination . The past cannot be changed, and society should stop compensating people who were never hurt at the expense of people who have done them no harm.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This unwarranted discrimination bothers most employers as well as most employees who do not qualify for affirmative action. The employers feel they have ended up with a lesser quality worker, because of unfair and unwanted employment regulations. Here is yet another disadvantage of affirmative action, namely that every employee from a social minority that benefits from affirmative action can bear a mark of not being the best pick, but only the best pick from a limited group, even if the person is selected for being the best available on the complete job market. The bypassed employees can feel tricked by the government or the minority.

The Evolution of Media Essay -- Communication, New Media, Old Media

The evolution of media, from old media to new media, has transformed the way we understand the world around us. New media is interactive and is user-generated while old media is a more traditional way of communicating through television, radio, newspapers, magazines, books, etc (Lecture Notes. January 12, 2011). New media gives us a new perspective by allowing us to interact with one another through the Internet. Media has become much more personal and diverse as user-generated content becomes more prominent in our lives (Lecture Notes. January 24, 2011). We are exposed to various viewpoints shape our understanding and knowledge of the social world, but does the form of media actually affect the way we understand the content which is presented to us? For my paper, I will determine whether or not the medium is the message by analyzing two different types of media sources and how they affect our understanding of the content. For my old media source I have chosen a news clip from the CB S Evening News with Katie Couric that deals with the ongoing Egyptian uprising. For my new media source I have chosen a video blog, or ‘vlog’, by an Egyptian man named Omar who discusses the crisis in Egypt from a personal point of view. Both media sources deal with the same topic, but result in different understandings of the crisis. Although both mediums focus on the same issue there are a lot of differences between the two. The CBS news clip uses a lot of visually dramatic effects to engage the audience and to get them to feel a certain way. In the news clip there are several images of violence by both the protestors and the police, however most videos are shot from the viewpoint of the police. This may be simply for safety reasons, however this le... ...ts. By simply posting a picture on Facebook, a movement for basic rights began. Since the users create the content of new media, people are able to inspire a mass audience. In conclusion, the medium is the message. The way that information is presented to us plays a key role in our understanding of the topic itself. By framing the crisis in Egypt a particular way, both the old and new media sources are able to give the audience two separate understandings of the social and cultural issues at hand. The media is less interested in telling the audience about the actual story and more interested in the underlying messages of society they provide. These underlying messages lead us to define social and cultural issues the way that the media want us to. Since the media sell us both products and ideas, both personalities and worldviews, the message becomes the medium.

Animal Testing Research Paper Essay

As citizens of the United States we are entitled to our civil rights. They include our basic needs for living a happy and safe life. Animals however are not entitled to any rights to ensure them safety, good health, and proper living conditions. Animal testing laboratories torture and kill innocent animals daily. The laboratories smell of chemicals and bleach, and the cages are dirty, and not properly kept. The horrible smells fill their nostrils and they are forced to walk in their own urine and feces. These animals are required to suffer in these conditions daily, this is not humane, and it is a slow and painful death. Holding an innocent animal against their will and torturing them with harmful substances is animal cruelty and should be illegal; there are efficient alternative ways to animal testing. Animal testing is known as the use of animals in experiments and development projects to determine toxicity, dosage, and efficacy of test drugs before proceeding to human clinical trials (â€Å"Animal Testing†). Animal testing is such a controversial topic because it involves using a living organism to test different drugs and chemicals and can potentially have a fatal outcome. The amount of stress put onto the animal throughout the testing is unhealthy and painful for the animal. It is just like an animal being brutally beaten by their owner; unfortunately the drugs and other hurtful substances forced onto the animal have long term effects and make the animal suffer through it to see the results of the test. This is so inhumane and wrong. Animals should not have to suffer through this unimaginable pain. There are different reasons for animal testing, the main ones being for cosmetic purposes such as makeup brands and plastic surgery procedures like Botox. Scientists use the animals to research different drugs and chemicals and essentially are looking for abnormal reactions from them. Being a female I purchase different cosmetic products that I use on a day to day basis. Cosmetics are articles intended to be applied to the human body for cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the appearance without affecting the body’s structure or functions (â€Å"Fact Sheet–Cosmetic Testing†). Some of the most commonly known brands test their products on animals. Companies like Johnson & Johnson, Avon, Kleenex, Vaseline, Dove,  Giorgio Armani, Maybelline, and countless more companies test their products on animals. Scientists conduct skin irritation tests that rub chemicals onto shaved skin or drop the chemicals into rabbit’s eyes without any pai n medication (â€Å"Fact Sheet- Cosmetic Testing†). They are testing products with the chemicals that could potentially cause the irritation, such as makeup remover, eye shadow, mascara, and things applied to the eye or eyelid. This test is obviously inhumane and painful for the rabbits, but there are alternatives to this test that are humane and can be done in place of it. Instead of putting the chemicals onto the rabbits, manufacturers can drop the chemicals onto donated human corneas (Cosmetics and Household). Women wear makeup and purchase products that are applied regularly to the face and eyes. With those products I am trusting that they will enhance my physical features in a positive way, but I would not want those products to be tested in such a cruel and torturous way. Diseases are another reason for testing on animals. Cancer, Down syndrome, heart problems, diabetes, and others are some of the main diseases scientists are trying to find cures for. The other side to animal testing can potentially save lives by finding cures for these life threatening diseases. This is why some parts of animal testing are so vital to our health systems and patients. Many universities use animals to test in different types of training programs. At the University of Michigan nursing students used a cat to practice putting a tube into its windpipe. The goal of the procedure was for nurses working on survival flights to be able to perform the procedure to patients in critical condition. The cat was later adopted into a family and was not harmed at all (Kozlowski). Although this particular procedure seems harmless to the cat and sounds painless campaigns continued to protest against using live animals and PETA continued to press the subject. They wanted them to replace using live animals with simulators which virtually does the same thing (Kozlowski). Tests like this that are done seem so minuet compared to others that are used for finding cures. Animal testing for human health has been said to be unsafe, unreliable, and expensive. On the contrary there have been cases where animal testing for medical reasons has in fact found vaccines and cures. From 1940 to 1960 polio was one of the most popular and well known diseases. Due to the  research conducted on animals polio has been eliminated as a well-known disease because of a vaccine that almost everyone has received (Use of Animals). Today children receive a lifetime vaccine for polio and are also immunized against typhus, whooping cough, and tetanus. I can see where the controversy comes in. I definitely think finding cures for all these diseases are something that needs to be done, but at the same time animals should have rights to their bodies. Animals that are forced into these facilities to be tested on come from all different parts of the world. Specially bred rats and mice are the mammals used in most medical research (â€Å"What Types of Animals†). Other mammals commonly found in research are guinea pigs, rabbits, hamsters, and farm animals such as pigs and sheep (â€Å"What Types of Animals†). In some cases it has been rumored that some of the animals are specially bred for certain types of testing. This has raised a lot of questions as to how accurate the tests actually are. Different animals are used for certain tests. In previous studies it was proven that certain animals react differently to the same tests. This is why so many different breeds and types of animals are affected by this; it involves so many different supplies and equipment which in turn can become costly. Animal testing has been known to be a costly and an unethical way of finding accurate cures. Some tests can take months or even years to conduct and analyze. This can result in spending hundreds of thousands, sometimes even millions of dollars on one test (â€Å"Costs of Animal†). The inefficiency and exorbitant costs associated with animal testing makes it impossible for regulators to adequately evaluate the potential effects of more than 100,000 chemicals worldwide (â€Å"Costs of Animal†).The amount of time needed to conduct one simple test is almost too extreme. The animal is suffering for months to years, for one result that isn’t even guaranteed. The amount of money spent on one test isn’t worth it, when the results are not always accurate. Alternative testing can save many animal lives; they also are less expensive and take less time to complete. The non-animal methods are more effective and most importantly, more ethical. Companies should use sophisticated computer technology for testing and drug development. Technology has become  the most important thing in society; it gives scientists the tools to extend human capabilities, so why are companies refusing to use the technology that is presented in society? These business practices on torturing animals are against business ethics. Population studies have shown how many infectious diseases are caused and also how many can be prevented. In fact, the National Insitutes of Health reported that more than 80 HIV/AIDS vaccines that have passed animal testing have failed in clinical trials (â€Å"Alternatives: Testing without Torture†). Non- animal tests are another great alternative. Non-animal tests include an embryonic stem cell test, 3T3 neutral red uptake photo toxicity tests and human skin leftover from surgical procedures (â€Å"Alternatives: Testing without Torture†). There are so many alternatives to animal testing that should be utilized instead of using live animals. On the other hand animal testing has contributed to finding many different cures and treatments for different diseases. When it comes down to it if you’re loved one has a disease and the only way to find an effective cure is to test it on an animal, then you would definitely want it done. Life or death plays a huge role in why so many people support animal testing. Animals are the most effective thing to test on because they share the same characteristics as humans. Chimpanzees share 99% of their DNA with humans, and mice are 98% genetically similar to humans (Animal Testing-ProCon). Sharing DNA with an animal has so many positive effects; the likeliness of finding a cure from testing on one of these animals could save so many lives. Laws have regulated animal testing to prevent the cruel and torturous acts from happening (Animal Testing-ProCon). There are many positive sides to animal testing that could potentially benefit our health systems and patients. Animal Cruelty is illegal in most states in the U.S. How is torturing animals, poking them with needles, rubbing harmful chemicals onto their bodies and into their eyes legal? It is defined as the same thing. Holding an innocent animal against their will and torturing them with harmful substances is animal cruelty and should be illegal. There are positive alternatives to finding cures and treatments. Although there are some positives, the amount of money, time, and animal cruelty is not worth it, considering the results are not always accurate. The amounts of stress  they are put through in these labs are enough to kill them without the drugs. The suffering and pain of these innocent animals are not worth making sure our mascara doesn’t make our eyes puffy, or how high of a dosage is safe without overdosing. Finding the alternatives could change everything. Throughout this research I have learned that animal testing is a cruel and ruthless act.

Drinking Water Essay

How many of you, when go to a restaurant and the waiter/waitress asks do you want something to drink. How many of you would prefer a glass of water out a fridge filled with soda, fruit juices, or beer? My guess is that probably no all of you prefer to drink water. I would choose water over the other options. I was not used to drinking water, but after I heard of the benefits that water has, I started to drink more water. For example when I’m thirsty instead of taking any kind of soda I prefer to drink water because it’s healthier for my health. Americans seem to carry bottled water everywhere they go these days. In fact, it has become the second most popular drink. Now, for those of you who drink water; do you actually get enough water that your body needs on a daily basis? Well according to Governance of water in the western United State everyone should strive to drink at least eight 8 ounce glasses of water per day. Today many people like to drink water because it has many benefits, some of these benefits are: Water Helps Maintain the Balance of Body Fluids: Your body is composed of about 60% water. The functions of these bodily fluids include digestion, absorption, circulation, creation of saliva, transportation of nutrients, and maintenance of body temperature. Water helps your body to function properly. Every cell needs water. Water Can Help Control Calories. If you are trying to lose weight, water is the best tool because water has zero calories, cero sugar, replaces high calories drinks, alcohol and fruit juice, a half cup of fruit juice can contain up to 80 calories, natural appetite suppressant. Water Helps Keep Skin Looking Good: Your skin contains plenty of water, and functions as a protective barrier to prevent excess fluid loss. Natural Headache Remedy: Helps relieve and prevent headaches (migraines & back pains too! ) which are commonly caused by dehydration. A water guzzler is less likely to get sick: Drinking plenty of water helps fight against flu, cancer, infection, pain arthritis, and other ailments like heart attacks. You will have more energy through the day as a result of drinking more water. Your body will feel healthy which will lead you to feel happier and put you in a good mood. If you think you need to be drinking more, here are some tips to increase your fluid intake and reap the benefits of water: 1. Carry a water bottle for easy access when you are at work of running errands. 2. Choose water when eating out. Generally, you will save money and reduce calories. 3. Choose water instead of sugar-sweetened beverages. This can also help with weight management. 4. Keep a bottle of water with you in your car, at your desk, or in your bag. 5. Add a wedge of lime or lemon to your water. This can help improve the taste and help you drink more water than you usually do. Water is life’s mater and matrix, mother and medium. There is no life without water. † Albert Szent-Gyorgyi quotes.

The Value Of Small Group Interaction In Teaching Education Essay

Collaborative acquisition, synergism acquisition, small-group acquisition, and concerted acquisition seem to be the new cants used by faculty members. This is due to the intensifying involvement over the past few old ages, with respect to the different attacks to learning and larning. Particularly the passage from individualistic to collaborative acquisition manners has been under huge examination as university module members and decision makers are rediscovering the construct of ‘two caputs being better than one ‘ . The involvement is been chiefly incited at a graduate student degree, where the key purposes are to develop the ability of pupils to believe critically, enhance mutuality and arrive at a socially constructed apprehension of the stuff provided. In add-on, alterations in organisational substructure have resulted in an increased accent on squad work within the work force. Consequently, the acquisition manner implemented at postgraduate degree is critical as it i s the stepping rock into the universe of work. This reappraisal aims to measure the value of little group interaction in the instruction and acquisition procedure. Specifically, this reappraisal will measure how this method impacts learning and larning at a postgraduate degree. More specifically, in this reappraisal little group interaction includes collaborative acquisition, concerted acquisition, every bit good as equal acquisition. The history of this method of acquisition will be looked at first to give a clearer image of how it has evolved since its origin. Cardinal footings will so be defined, as they are applicable in this reappraisal, to guarantee apprehension of the most of import constructs occurs from the start. This will be followed by the theories that have developed, the advantages, and so the restrictions on the subject, so that a clear statement can be developed. Therefore, it will be determined whether collaborative methods consequence in the enhanced value of learning and larning at postgraduate degree. This pro be is greatly needed at a higher instruction level- as it is a topographic point where the competition is rife, clip force per unit areas are high and there is a great trade of external force per unit area to develop the leaders of tomorrow.2. History of collaborative acquisitionAlthough the history of collaborative acquisition is really unelaborated, it is non a comparatively new method of larning. It appears likely that people have been larning informally in groups for 1000s of old ages ( McInnerney & A ; Roberts, 2004 ) . Kimber ( 1994 ) states that collaborative acquisition was foremost instituted in Greek and Roman schools and coincides with the doctrine of Socratic larning – when pupils ‘ inquiring and discourse were emphasized. Johnson, Johnson, and Holubec ( 1993 ) stated the Roman philosopher, Seneca showed support for concerted acquisition through statements such as: Qui Docet Discet ( when you teach, you learn twice ) . Kimber ( 1996 ) and Johnson et Al ( 1993 ) province that concerted acquisition came into prominence in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries in Europe and England. During this period Joseph Lancaster and Andrew Bell made extended usage of `monitorial ‘ systems which were devised to enable big Numberss of pupils gain simple instruction at post-industrial revolution schools which were missing in trained instructors. Student ‘monitors ‘ were used to learn other disadvantaged or younger students. Similarly, in the early 19th century concerted acquisition gained popularity among pedagogues across a spectrum of didactic Fieldss. In the late 1930 ‘s, nevertheless, interpersonal competition began to be emphasized in schools and in the late sixtiess, individualistic acquisition began to be used extensively. In the 1980s, schools one time once more began to utilize concerted acquisition. The work of Johnson, Johnson and Smith ( 1991 ) transferred the value of active acquisition to the university degree and argued that big schoolrooms could besides be transformed to go student-centered learning environments. In 1989, a workshop was held in Maratea, Italy. This workshop is considered by many to hold marked the birth of the field of computer-supported collaborative acquisition ( Bereiter, 2002 ; Stahl, Koschmann, & A ; Suthers, 2006 ; Lipponen, 2002 ) . Additionally in 1996, Koschmann ( 1996 ) suggested computer-supported collaborative acquisition ( CSCL ) as an emerging theoretical account of educational engineering and CSCL has been progressing of all time since.3. Definition of footingsCollaborative acquisition has been established in a assortment of ways over clip in a spectrum of academic Fieldss. In the broadest sense, collaborative acquisition is defined by Dillenbourg ( 1999, p.1 ) as â€Å" a state of affairs in which two or more people learn or attempt to larn something together. † The ‘two or more people ‘ referred to in the definition above, is applicable in equal acquisition as â€Å" person of the same societal standing † ( Falchikov, 2001, p.1 ) , which in an educational context implies person â€Å" within the same category or cohort † ( Falchikov, p.3 ) . For illustration, pupils presently finishing their Masters Degree in Human Resource Management who web and addition cognition from interaction with each other are prosecuting in equal acquisition. Common to the assorted definitions of collaborative acquisition is that accent is placed on the thought of joint building of cognition and common battle of participants ( Lipponen, 2002 ) . In this reappraisal the footings collaborative acquisition and concerted acquisition are used interchangeably. However, a differentiation between the two must be noted. The former involves the joint battle of pupils, at assorted public presentation degrees, in a co-ordinated attempt to work out the job together ( Panitz, 1996 ) . The latter is accomplished by agencies of the division of labour, pupils work together in little groups to carry through a common end, whereby each individual is responsible for a fraction of the job resolution ( Roschelle & A ; Teasly, in imperativeness ; Cooper, McKinney, and Robinson ( 1991 ) ; Gokhale 1995 ) . In add-on, Dillenbourg, Baker, Blaye and O'Malley ( 1996 ) indicate that basically the two differ by virtuousness of the manner the undertaking is divided: in concerted acquisition, the undertaking is split hierarchically into independent subtasks ; in collaborative acquisition, the cognitive patterned advance may be heterarchially divided into int ertwined beds. When utilizing the footings collaborative or cooperative larning interchangeably, the definition applicable, as stated by ( Yazici, 2005, p.217 ) is: â€Å" the instructional usage of little groups or squads where equal interaction plays a cardinal function in larning † . Additionally, Dillenbourgh ( 1999 ) contends that collaborative acquisition can be understood as a pedagogical method or a psychological procedure. Collaborative acquisition in a pedagogical sense is normative: one asks two or more people to join forces because it is expected they will in this mode learn expeditiously. In the psychological sense it is descriptive: one observes that two or more people have gained cognition and coaction is viewed as the mechanism which caused the acquisition. In this reappraisal, collaborative acquisition will be applied in the pedagogical sense with respect to postgraduate degree acquisition.4. Learning at graduate student degreeThere are considerable differences in the purposes and methods of instruction and acquisition at undergraduate and postgraduate degree of instruction ( Lave & A ; Wenger, 1991 ; Barnacle, 2005 ; Donnelly, 2008 ; Butler,1993 ) . The cardinal purpose at postgraduate degree is to come on the ability of pupils to believe criticall y ( Jones, Michael, Gear, & A ; Read, 2006 ) . The procedure referred to as ‘post-conventional believing ‘ by Ashley ( 1973 as cited in Jones et al 2006 ) is critical in carry throughing this purpose. He defines it as a procedure â€Å" during which the pupil is able to travel from a place of noncritical credence of the orthodox to one of originative dissent, a procedure that stretches the mind and encourages the outgrowth of new or revised ways of thought † ( Ashley, as cited in Jones et Al, p.379 ) . Collaborative larning Fosters this procedure as it stretches the mind and encourages the outgrowth of advanced or revised ways of thought ( Ladyshewsky, 2006 ; Jones et Al, 2006 ) . Similarly, Machemer and Crawford ( 2007 ) argue that the traditional talk method of learning has two important failings at postgraduate degree. First, it promotes pupil passiveness which does non heighten or prolong the pupils ‘ acquisition. Second, the extremist alterations and elaborateness of the information makes it hard to draw-up talks that cover the necessary deepness, comprehensiveness and advanced cognition required. Conversely, a survey conducted in graduate student medical instruction resulted in both collaborative acquisition and the traditional talk method being every bit effectual in bettering the cognition degrees of pupils ( Smits, De Buisonje , Verbeek, Van Dijk, Metz, and Cate, 2003 ) . Therefore, when sing execution of collaborative acquisition methods, the context which it is to be applied every bit good as the construct of battle should be taken into history. The construct of battle is cardinal to successful acquisition at postgraduate degree ( Jungst, Licklider, and Wiersma, 2003 ) . Consequently as cited by Jungst et Al. it is in the active acquisition environment that a deeper degree of understanding and true acquisition occurs, larning that can be transferred to the universe outside of the schoolroom. In add-on, at postgraduate degree, pupils transform as societal agents and signifier individualities as scholars, professionals and, more widely, as members of society ( Havness, 2008 ) . However, antecedently O'Donell, Tobell, and Zammit ( 2007 ) argued that the nature of passage from undergraduate to postgraduate survey is less ambitious and there is small to get the better of because, in kernel, the environment remains the same. After farther survey, O'Donell et Al ( 2009 ) concluded that there should be greater independent survey by pupils at postgraduate degree and farther synergistic workshop-style instruction, taking to knowledge and understanding which is socially constructed instead than passively received.( Beginning: Stahl, 2000, p.71 )In add-on to knowledge being socially constructed, Stahl ( 2000 ) states that cognition should be personally constructed every bit good. Stahl farther explains that the diagram aims to associate the person and the societal facets in the knowledge-building procedure. This procedure begins with the rhythm of personal apprehension. The staying parts of the diagram exemplify how the person ‘s personal beliefs and civilization are influenced by other people ‘s values, beliefs and point of views ( societal procedure ) . A shared civilization is so formed, which impacts on the personal apprehension, as it takes form through act uponing the ways of thought, diverseness influences, every bit good as motivational concerns. The procedure is initiated once more when the new civilization adopted by the single influences others as he / she interacts with different groups of people. However, to guarantee that a knowledge-building procedure does in fact occur, the pros and cons of collaborative acquisition should be weighed up.5. Advantages of collaborative acquisitionFor the successful passage to take topographic point, a great trade of research sing the result of collaborative acquisition in contrast to traditional instructional patterns has been conducted ( Kimber, 1994 ) . Instructor-centered methods of learning can non adequately impact the complex results ( job work outing accomplishments ; higher order believing accomplishments ; the ability to hold a diverse positions view ; ethical logical thinking ; and life-long acquisition ) that a postgraduate pupil requires ( Jungst et al, 2003 ) . Numerous surveies look intoing higher instruction conclude that pupils who follow in-class collaborative acquisition processs and actively collaborate with each other are more satisfied with their acquisition experience and consequence in greater positive results when compared to pupils who are exposed to the traditional talk method ( Kimber, 1994 ; Alavi, 1994 ) . Consequently, this satisfaction consequences from interpersonal relationships which are developed and enhanced through group acquisition ( Johnson et al, 1991 ) . Another factor lending to the satisfaction of collaborative acquisition methods is that it is per se motivative, as each single member is critical to procuring a productive, concerted acquisition pattern ( Havness, 2008 ) . Andrews ‘ ( 1992 ) work with larning squads confirms the position that greater satisfaction is experienced as collaborative larning improves assurance and supports the acquisition procedure. Additionally, Johnson & A ; Johnson ( 1994 ) concluded that concerted larning systematically produced higher tonss of self-efficiency than did individualistic conditions. Besides greater satisfaction is achieved since equals are at an equal degree and therefore can be more unfastened and explore to the full the countries of cognitive struggle ( Ladyshewsky, 2006 ) . This satisfaction experienced consequences in avidity to larn ( Kimber, 1994 ) . In add-on, the degree of equality with equals encourages greater dynamic battle in the acquisition procedure and building of cognition with deeper apprehension ( Alavi, 1994 ) . Attainment of greater understanding consequences in longer keeping of information and turning away of abrasion ( Cooper, 1990 ) . As a consequence, job resolution accomplishments are enhanced and it consequences in higher order thought ( Jaarsma, De Graves, and Muijtjens, 2008 ) . Likewise, Mazen, Jones, and Sergenian ( 2000 ) further supports the importance of group acquisition by indicating out that by working hand in glove, pupils can heighten accomplishments and advanced ways of believing which will ensue in group procedure additions. When working hand in glove, the issue of diverseness must non be forgotten. Escalating Numberss of postgraduate pupils from diverse backgrounds with changing positions and readings are holding a profound consequence on concerted acquisition ( Booth, Bowie, Jordan, and Rippin, 2000 ) . Wyss-Flamm ( 2002 ) points out that the outgrowth of ‘difference ‘ is indispensable to larning. Exposure to the differences can elicit the demand to try to come in each other ‘s heads and therefore larning something for which the tool of conversation is priceless ( Argyris & A ; Schion, 1996 ) . Similarly, Stein and Hurd ( 2000 ) acknowledge that collaborative acquisition transforms the acquisition environment into a student-centered one, which capitalizes on the diverseness of the pupils, and lessens dependance on the professor as the individual conveyor of cognition. This can ensue in interpersonal every bit good as intrapersonal procedures interacting with each other, making chances for larning to happen within the established modus operandis ( single-loop acquisition ) or larning that requires advanced modus operandis be created ( double-loop acquisition ) ( Argyris, 1999 ) . In contrast, Foldy ( 2004 ) states that persons who are portion of diverse groups will be characterized by feelings of misgiving or non experiencing safe as they are non grouped with those similar to them. Consequently, there will be greater intra-group struggle originating. Therefore, Booth et Al. bespeak that diverseness can merely be valuable to the acquisition if the differences are recognized and appreciated. Similarly, Milliken & A ; Martins ( 1996, p. 403 ) province that diverseness in concerted larning groups can be seen as a â€Å" double-edged blade † , intending that it possesses the possible to be of great advantage, but this will merely happen if it is managed efficaciously. Extra benefits of collaborative acquisition, adapted from Nunamaker, Dennis, Valacich, Vogel, and George, ( 1991 ) , include: the group generates more information and options as compared to the mean single group member ; group larning motivates the person to execute better ; groups are more effectual and nonsubjective in rating, and in conclusion, interactions amongst group members lead to synergisms. Similarly, Boud, Cohen, and Sampson ( 2001, cited in Havnes, 2008 ) highlight five results that can peculiarly be advanced by equal acquisition schemes, these include: working with others ; critical question and contemplation ; communicating and articulation of cognition, understanding and accomplishments ; pull offing acquisition and how to larn ; self and peer appraisal. In add-on, collaborative acquisition has been found to back up greater productiveness, coevals of originative thoughts or advanced solutions, and heighten the pupils ‘ ability of societal position pickings ( Cus eo, 1992 ; Lord, 2001 ) . However it must be noted that these positive results do non predominate with all groups and in all contexts as the outlooks of group members may non conform to each other ( Felder & A ; Brent, 2001 ) or societal idleness of free equitation may happen within the group ( Mello, 1993 ) . These jobs, if experienced, can finally ensue in the devastation of the group. However, when the positive results of collaborative acquisition do transpire, it supports the constructive impact that this method of acquisition has on academic-related accomplishment ( Alavi, 1994 ) . This is farther supported by empirical grounds of improved accomplishment at postgraduate degree ( DaRos- Voseles, Onwuegbuzie, and Qun, 2008 ; Collins, Cao, and Robidoux, 2004 ) . The degrees of academic accomplishment attained are fostered by the collaborative acquisition environment as it gives pupils an chance to prosecute in treatment, take duty for their single acquisition every bit good as accomplishment of the group ‘s ends, and therefore go critical minds ( Totten, Sills, Digby, and Russ, 1991 ) . This was farther proven in a survey conducted by Gokhale ( 1995 ) .5.1 Study to find effectivity of collaborative acquisition: Gokhale 1995The intent of this survey was to find the effectivity of collaborative larning versus single acquisition as it relates to larning results achieved. The population for the survey comprised of pupils in industrial engineering, enrolled at Western Illinois University. The intervention comprised of two parts: talk and worksheet. First, a common talk was delivered to both intervention groups. Next, one subdivision was indiscriminately assigned to the â€Å" single acquisition group † while the other subdivision was assigned to the â€Å" collaborative acquisition group † . The same worksheet was given to both intervention groups. It was comprised of both drill-and-practice points ( factual cognition and comprehension ) and critical- thought points ( analysis, synthesis and rating of constructs ) . Subsequent to a statistical analysis of the trial tonss, the consequences depicted that pupils who participated in collaborative acquisition had performed significantly better on the critical-thinking trial than pupils who studied separately. It was besides found that both groups performed every bit good on the drill-and-practice trial. The collaborative acquisition medium provided pupils with chances to analyse, synthesise and measure thoughts hand in glove. Therefore, the positive results of this survey on collaborative acquisition can be applied at a graduate student degree where the cardinal purpose is for pupils to believe critically and heighten cognition and apprehension which is socially constructed ( Jones et al 2006 ) . The consequences of this survey conform to the developmental positions ( Slavin, 1995 ) of collaborative acquisition proposed by the advocates of collaborative acquisition such as Vygotsky and Piaget.5.2 Piaget ‘s Constructivist PerspectiveValidation o f concerted acquisition stems, in portion, from theories of societal mutuality ( Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1998 ) . Piaget ‘s socio-cognitive struggle theory provinces that kids ( or grownups ) on different degrees of cognitive development, or those persons on the same degree of cognitive development with differing positions, can prosecute in societal interaction that leads to a cognitive struggle. Through treatment with other equals, the ‘shock of our idea coming into contact with others ‘ ( Piaget, 1928 ) leads to a disequilibrium within participants. This consequences in the building of new conceptual constructions and understanding in order to reconstruct equilibrium. ( Ladyshewsky, 2006 ; Slavin, 1987 ; Lipponen, 2002 ) . The importance of collaborative acquisition can be farther understood by Vygotsky ‘s theoretical model.5.3 Vygotsky zone of proximal developmentParallel to Piaget ‘s constructivist position ( Piaget,1969 ) , Vygotsky ‘s t heoretical concept of the zone of proximal development provides strong support for the inclusion of concerted acquisition as a method of instructional scheme as it consequences in the sweetening of the acquisition that occurs. Vygotsky ( 1978 ) defines the zone of proximal development as â€Å" The distance between the existent developmental degree as determined by independent job resolution and the degree of possible development as determined through job work outing under grownup counsel or in coaction with more capable equals. † ( See figure 2 )Figure 2: Zone of Proximal DevelopmentBeginning: Harnum ( 2009 )5.4 Theory of concerted acquisitionSupporting the theory of societal mutuality, Slavin ( 1995 ) proposed a two-element theory of concerted larning comprising of positive mutuality and single answerability. Likewise, Johnson et Al. ( 1991a, 1991b ) advocated a five-component theory of concerted acquisition. Harmonizing to the theoretical account, the following five elemen ts are indispensable for maximising the long-run success of the concerted learning venture:Figure 3: Pillars of concerted acquisitionPillars of Cooperative LearningFace-to-face interactionPositive mutualityGroupprocessingIndividual AccountabilitySocialaccomplishmentsAdapted: www.foundationcoalition.orgThe presence of the five basic constituents of concerted acquisition may all be accounted for within the theoretical model provided by Vygotsky ‘s zone of proximal development. Positive Mutuality: It is the connecting of pupils reciprocally so that the person can non win unless all group members win ( Johnson, Johnson, and Smith, 1998 ) . Vygotskys ‘s theory rests upon the rule that a kid ‘s development is dependent upon interactions with other kids and grownups. Therefore, kids and grownups are developmentally dependent, and hence interdependent ( Doolittle, 1995 ) . Face-to-face interaction: Within concerted acquisition, face-to-face interaction involves pupils need to make existent work jointly in which they promote each other ‘s success by sharing resources and helping, back uping, encouraging, and acknowledging each other ‘s attempts to accomplish the group ‘s ends ( Johnson et al 1998 ) . It is interpreted in the Vygotskian system as societal mediation and encultration. Encultration refers to what is learnt, while societal mediation refers to how it is learnt. Individual answerability: It is the belief held by each person that he/she will be held responsible for his/her ain public presentation and acquisition ( Johnson et al 1998 ) . For Vygotsky, single answerability would be reflected in each group member being responsible for developing within their ain alone zone of proximal development ( Doolittle, 1995 ) . Group Processing: Group treating exists when group members discuss how good they are accomplishing their ends and measuring ways to better the productivity of all group member in accomplishing the group ends ( Johnson et al 1998 ; Doolittle, 1995 ) . Within the model of Vygotsky ‘s theory, portion of direction entails the changeless monitoring of each pupil ‘s growing within their zone of proximal development ( Doolittle, 1995 ) . This survey was inconclusive in demoing that graduate squads perform better with collaborative acquisition manners. However, the consequences for graduate pupils indicate that collaborative acquisition manner is influential in public presentation, along with competitory and participant acquisition manners. Johnson and Johnson ( 1998 ) besides conclude that alumnus pupils portray the traits of independent scholars and are enthusiastic to obtain some enterprise and lament to accept duties for their ain acquisition. Therefore, professors should be more interested to ease independent larning. Furthermore, Johnson and Johnson province that the function of facilitator or delegator ensures working with pupils in a advisory manner and sweetening of the pupils ‘ capacity to larn independently, this is similar to what is required in organisational squads.6.2 Problems with collaborative acquisition mannerDespite the positive results that have been stated, there are many jobs that exist as good ( Machemer & A ; Crawford, 2007 ) . These jobs have resulted in some professors defying to prosecute in alternate theoretical accounts for learning and larning despite holding academic freedom in their instruction manners ( Moore, 2005 ) . The jobs experienced foremost include, a slow passage from traditional to collaborative signifiers of acquisition may happen particularly with pupils who can non accommodate easy or those who are extremely immune to alter ( Kimber, 1994 ) . Second, the degree of psychological safety in the colloquial infinite is a major determiner in results achieved ( Jones et al. , 2006 ) . Anxiety may originate as a consequence of the strangeness of the stuff being studied, or by the strain of lending to the conversation in a ambitious manner and could motivate a negative response and turning away of acquisition ( Vince & A ; Martin, 1993 ) . Third, unconstructive discourse may originate when consensus can non be reached with respects to the stuff, ends o r values ( Bruffee, 1984 ) . The increasing heterogeneousness ( Baer, 1996 ) and diverseness amongst graduate student pupils ( Booth et al. , 2000 ) escalates the happening of dysfunctional discourse in the acquisition procedure. Students may show farther hurdlings for collaborative acquisition which include: deficiency of engagement, backdown due to fear of negative rating, fright of some pupils ruling the session, troubles in maintaining the treatment focused, information overload for single members and measuring the degree of understanding ( Anderson, 1995 ; Nunamaker et al. , 1991 ) . The jobs experienced have caused certain lectors to give up on concerted larning techniques on the whole ( Cohen, 1994 ) . In the same manner, Machemer and Crawford ( 2007 ) point out that lectors give up on concerted larning methods as it has limited schoolroom ( talk ) application. In add-on, the design and testing of collaborative activities and lessons can be time-consuming on presently overloaded module agendas ( Cooper, 1995 ) . This consequences in concerns from a learning position, such as: the course of study non being completed as the activities take up a great trade of clip ; perceived loss of control in the schoolroom ; and trouble in measuring the pupils ‘ engagement and effectivity of the collaborative acquisition manners ( Gerlach, 1994 ) . Similarly, extra concerns include: the insufficiency of collaborative larning techniques in making high knowledge-attainment degrees with complex stuff, every bit good as pupils missing the critical features for working in effectual squads ( Cooper, 1995 ; Lord, 2001 ) . These critical features are what the ideal squad member should possess, which leads to the issue that the collaborative theoretical account assumes how professors are supposed to learn, how pupils are supposed to larn, and how cognition is created ( Moore, 2005 ) . However, Bruffee ( 1993 ) argues that cognition is non something transferred from one person ‘s caput to the following. â€Å" Collaborative acquisition assumes alternatively that cognition is a consensus among the members of a community of knowing peers-something people concept by speaking together and making understanding † ( Bruffee, 1993, p. 3 ) . Furthermore, Nias ( 1987 ) argues, that it is evident that non all pupils take an active function in the analysis of instances through argument. As affirmed by Jones et al 2006, a figure of factors may lend to this, including: Lack of assurance: pupils may grok the instance but do non set across their sentiment. Lack of involvement: the capable country may non be of involvement to each pupil. Lack of engagement: there are identifiable barriers to involvement ; e.g. domination of some pupils or linguistic communication barriers. Lack of readying: a deficiency of clip, committedness or motive. These factors should be mitigated every bit far as possible so as to make positive groups which help people to do positive alterations ( Goleman, Boyatzis, and Mckee, 2002 ) . Positive groups emerge where there are high degrees of single answerability, group coherence, seasonably and effectual feedback and expressed wagess for high degrees of group public presentation ( Michaelson, Fink, and Knight, 1997 ) . In contrast, unsatisfactory groups appear where free equitation or societal idleness ( doing less attempt to accomplish a end ) occurs ( Brooks & A ; Ammons, 2003 ; Mello, 1993 ) . This may give rise to interpersonal struggles and finally group devastation ( Jehn & A ; Mannix 2001 ; Miller, 2003 ) . Conversely, a longitudinal survey conducted ; found that a peculiar form of struggle resulted in higher group public presentation. This form was created as â€Å" squads executing good were characterized by low but increasing degrees of procedure struggle ; low degrees of relationship struggle, with a rise near undertaking deadlines ; and moderate degrees of undertaking struggle at the center of group interaction † ( Jehn & A ; Mannix, p.238 ) . The persons ‘ dissatisfaction will most likely influence squad public presentation, squad stableness, the size and construction of the group, and temporal range ( Alge, Wiethoff, and Klein, 2003 ; Johnson et al. , 1991 ; Jaques, 2000 ) . In add-on, diverseness ( Koppenhaver & A ; Shrader, 2003 ) and the squad members ‘ personal features, such as psychological profile, corporate orientation, and larning penchants are likely to act upon public presentation ( Kunkel & A ; Shafer, 1997 ; Lancaster & A ; Strand, 2001 ; Mennecke, Hoffer, and Wynne, 1992 ; Robbins, 1994 ) . These restrictions therefore pose a major menace to full development of the positive facets associated with collaborative acquisition and to the success of this method on the whole.7. DecisionFrom the reappraisal it is evident that there are assorted consequences sing the value of collaborative instruction and acquisition at postgraduate degree. It is evident that the benefits of this method outweigh the negative facets. However it must be noted, that the benefits do non use to all involved and if the restrictions are non adequately taken into history, the effects are bound to be black. In add-on, the diverseness amongst pupils particularly at postgraduate degree is intensifying. The heterogeneousness of pupils must be considered and hence, a ‘one method fits all ‘ attack should non be applied. Supervisors should change learning manners to suit for the diverseness of larning penchants amongst pupils. However, future research should be conducted to find the consequence of jointly using the different larning methods on pupils, their perceptual experiences or value placed on these techniques, and whether these methods will guarantee that optimum larning takes topographic point. Professors need to switch from the impression that â€Å" instruction is stating, acquisition is absorbing, and cognition is subject-matter content † ( Spence, 2001, p.12 ) . This is important as employers in current organisations are demanding more than merely proficient cognition of university alumnuss ( Jungst, Licklider, and Wiersma, 2003 ) . They require alumnuss who can believe under force per unit area, guarantee effectivity in team-work, communicate efficaciously, and build new cognition and thoughts that will give their employers the border in the current fast-paced universe. ( Gardiner, 1994 ; Brown & A ; Lassoie, 1998 ) . Therefore, by altering the patterns of instruction and acquisition in the schoolroom, there is greater possible for the happening of transmutations -for the persons, organisations, and systems ( Moore, 2005 ) . The possibility to restructure and rethink instruction and acquisition at postgraduate degree is exciting, exciting, disputing, hazardous, and ripe with possibility.